Post-Marxism

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Post-Marxism is a perspective in critical social theory which radically reinterprets Marxism, countering its association with economism, historical determinism, anti-humanism, and class reductionism, [1] whilst remaining committed to the construction of socialism. [2] [3] Most notably, Post-Marxists are anti-essentialist, rejecting the primacy of class struggle, and instead focus on building radical democracy. [4] [5] [6] Post-Marxism can be considered a synthesis of post-structuralist [7] [8] [9] frameworks and neo-Marxist [10] analysis, [11] in response to the decline of the New Left after the protests of 1968. [12] In a broader sense, post-Marxism can refer to Marxists or Marxian-adjacent theories which break with the old worker's movements and socialist states entirely, [13] in a similar sense to post-Leftism, [14] [15] and accept that the era of mass revolution premised on the Fordist worker is potentially over. [16]

Contents

The term "Post-Marxism" first appeared in Ernesto Laclau and Chantal Mouffe's theoretical work Hegemony and Socialist Strategy. [17] [18] Post-Marxism is a wide category not well-defined, containing the work of Laclau and Mouffe [19] [20] on the one hand, and some strands of autonomism and Open Marxism, [21] post-structuralism, [22] [23] cultural studies, [24] ex-Marxists [25] and Deleuzian-inspired [26] 'politics of difference' [27] [28] on the other. [29] Recent overviews of post-Marxism are provided by Ernesto Screpanti, [30] Göran Therborn, [31] and Gregory Meyerson. [32] Prominent post-Marxist journals include New Formations , [33] Constellations, [34] Endnotes, [35] Crisis and Critique [36] and Arena. [37]

History

Post-Marxism first originated in the late 1970s, and several trends and events of that period influenced its development. [38] The weakness of the Soviet Union and Eastern Bloc paradigm became evident after the so called "Secret speech" and the following invasion of Hungary, which split the radical left irreparably. [39] Marxism from then on faced a crisis of credibility, resulting in various developments in Marxist theory, particularly neo-Marxism, which theorised against much of the Eastern Bloc. [40] This happened concurrently with the occurrence internationally of the strikes and occupations of 1968, the rise of Maoist theory, and the proliferation of commercial television and later information technologies which covered in its broadcasts the Vietnam War.

Post-Marxism, although with its roots in this New Left and the consequent post-structural moment in France, [41] has its real genesis in reaction to the hegemony of neoliberalism, and defeat of the Left in such events as the UK miners' strike. Ernesto Laclau argued that a Marxism for the neoliberal conjuncture required a fundamental reworking, to address the failures of both. [42] Subsequently, Laclau and Mouffe address the proliferation of "new subject positions" by locating their analysis on a non-essentialist framework.

Simultaneously, revolutionaries in Italy, known as Operaismo, and later autonomists, [43] began to theorise against the conservative Italian Communist Party, [44] focusing much more on labour, gender and the later works of Marx. In France, radicals such as Félix Guattari redefined old Lacanian models of desire and subjectivity, which had often been tied to the communist project, bringing Nietzsche into conversation with Marx. [45] [46] In the Eastern Bloc, the Budapest School [47] began reinterpreting Marx, building on the work of the Praxis school before them. [48] In West Germany, theorists reinterpreted Marx's works entirely from a Hegelian perspective.

Turning to the Atlantic, in the UK, Stuart Hall [49] began to experiment with increasingly aggressive post-structuralist theorists in the build up to New Labour whilst working for Marxism Today, especially in relation to race and identity. [50] John Holloway began to forge a new path between Althusserian structural Marxism and instrumentalist theorists of monopoly capitalism. In the US, Michael Hardt collaborated with Antonio Negri to produce Empire at the turn of the century, widely recognised as a consolidation and re-affirmation of post-Marxism. [51] Harry Cleaver produced innovative readings of Capital, alongside Moishe Postone who reaffirmed Marx's central concepts.

Post-Marxism also has different connotations within radical feminist theory. The way Catharine MacKinnon uses the term post-Marxism is not based on post-structuralism. She says "feminism worthy of the name absorbs and moves beyond marxist methodology", [52] meaning that Marxism is not to be left behind but built on.

Currently, figures in the US, UK, and Europe continue to produce work in the post-Marxist tradition, particularly Nancy Fraser, Alain Badiou, Jeremy Gilbert and Étienne Balibar. This theory is often very different from that produced by Laclau and Mouffe, and much of the Left has turned against the Post-Marxist turn. [53] [54]

Despite being born in Latin America and the Eastern Bloc, post-Marxism is largely produced by theorists of the Global North, as the following criticisms reveal. Aside from perhaps Spivak, there are no notable theorists of the Global South [55] who are within the post-Marxist tradition, [56] and the radical movements of the Global South largely remain within the 'Old Left' tradition. [57] Several reasons relating to political geography and level of academisation are given as explanations. There is some debate however as to whether Cedric Robinson was a post-Marxist. [58]

Despite this, the Zapatistas have been a large source of inspiration for many post-Marxists. [59]

Criticism

Post-Marxism has been criticised from both the left and the right wings of Marxism. [60] Nick Thoburn has criticised Laclau's Post-Marxism (and its relationship to Eurocommunism) as essentially a rightward shift to social democracy. [61] Ernest Mandel [62] and Sivanandan [63] [64] make this same point. Richard Wolff also claims that Laclau's formulation of Post-Marxism is a step backwards. [65] Oliver Eagleton (son of Terry Eagleton) claims that Mouffe's 'radical democracy' has an inherent conservative nature. [66]

Other Marxist's have criticised Autonomist Marxism or post-operaismo, a form of post-Marxism, of having a theoretically weak understanding of value in capitalist economies. [67] It has also been by criticised by other Marxists for being anti-humanist / anti-(Hegelian) dialectical. [68]

Post-Marxism of all stripes has also been criticised for downplaying or ignoring the role of race, neocolonialism, and Eurocentrism. [69] [70] [71] [72]

Post-Marxism as a term is also seen as being too imprecise, often used as an insult [73] or a straw man. Besides Laclau and Mouffe, very few Marxists describe themselves as Post-Marxists, regardless of their own affinities with post-structuralist theories or their reinterpretation of Marx. [74] There is also much disagreement between post-Marxists on fundamental questions of strategy and philosophy (Hegel or Spinoza, for example); some forward a left-populism, others a complete rejection of organised politics, and others a new Leninist vanguard.

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The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to critical theory:

Post-structuralism is a philosophical movement that questions the objectivity or stability of the various interpretive structures that are posited by structuralism and considers them to be constituted by broader systems of power. Although post-structuralists all present different critiques of structuralism, common themes among them include the rejection of the self-sufficiency of structuralism, as well as an interrogation of the binary oppositions that constitute its structures. Accordingly, post-structuralism discards the idea of interpreting media within pre-established, socially constructed structures.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Antonio Negri</span> Italian political philosopher (1933–2023)

Antonio Negri was an Italian political philosopher known as one of the most prominent theorists of autonomism, as well as for his co-authorship of Empire with Michael Hardt. Born in Padua, Italy, Negri became a professor of political philosophy at the University of Padua, where he taught state and constitutional theory. Negri founded the Potere Operaio group in 1969 and was a leading member of Autonomia Operaia, and published highly influential books, including Empire and Multitude: War and Democracy in the Age of Empire, urging "revolutionary consciousness."

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Michael Hardt</span> American philosopher (1960-)

Michael Hardt is an American political philosopher and literary theorist. Hardt is best known for his book Empire, which was co-written with Antonio Negri.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ernesto Laclau</span> Argentine philosopher and political theorist

Ernesto Laclau was an Argentine political theorist and philosopher. He is often described as an 'inventor' of post-Marxist political theory. He is well known for his collaborations with his long-term partner, Chantal Mouffe.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chantal Mouffe</span> Belgian post-Marxist political theorist (born 1943)

Chantal Mouffe is a Belgian political theorist, formerly teaching at University of Westminster. She is best known for her and Ernesto Laclau's contribution to the development of the so-called Essex School of discourse analysis. She is a strong critic of deliberative democracy and advocates a conflict-oriented model of radical democracy.

Marxism is a political philosophy and method of socioeconomic analysis. It uses a dialectical materialist interpretation of historical development, better known as historical materialism, to analyse class relations, social conflict, and social transformation. Marxism originates with the works of 19th-century German philosophers Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. Marxism has developed over time into various branches and schools of thought, and as a result, there is no single, definitive Marxist theory. Marxism has had a profound effect in shaping the modern world, with various left-wing and far-left political movements taking inspiration from it in varying local contexts.

<i>Empire</i> (Hardt and Negri book) Book by Antonio Negri and Michael Hardt

Empire is a book by post-Marxist philosophers Michael Hardt and Antonio Negri. Written in the mid-1990s, it was published in 2000 and quickly sold beyond its expectations as an academic work.

Autonomism, also known as Autonomist Marxism, is an anti-capitalist social movement and Marxist-based theoretical current that first emerged in Italy in the 1960s from workerism. Later, post-Marxist and anarchist tendencies became significant after influence from the Situationists, the failure of Italian far-left movements in the 1970s, and the emergence of a number of important theorists including Antonio Negri, who had contributed to the 1969 founding of Potere Operaio as well as Mario Tronti, Paolo Virno and Franco "Bifo" Berardi.

Posthegemony or post-hegemony is a period or a situation in which hegemony is no longer said to function as the organizing principle of a national or post-national social order, or of the relationships between and amongst nation states within the global order. The concept has different meanings within the fields of political theory, cultural studies, and international relations.

<i>Hegemony and Socialist Strategy</i> 1985 book by Chantal Mouffe and Ernesto Laclau

Hegemony and Socialist Strategy: Towards a Radical Democratic Politics is a 1985 work of political theory in the post-Marxist tradition by Ernesto Laclau and Chantal Mouffe. Developing several sharp divergences from the tenets of canonical Marxist thought, the authors begin by tracing historically varied discursive constitutions of class, political identity, and social self-understanding, and then tie these to the contemporary importance of hegemony as a destabilized analytic which avoids the traps of various procedures Mouffe and Laclau feel constitute a foundational flaw in Marxist thought: essentializations of class identity, the use of a priori interpretative paradigms with respect to history and contextualization, the privileging of the base/superstructure binary above other explicative models.

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Open Marxism</span> Marxist school of thought

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Alberto Toscano</span> Italian scholar and translator

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