Daniel Schechter

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Daniel S. Schechter

Daniel S. Schechter (born 1962 in Miami, Florida) is an American and Swiss psychiatrist known for his clinical work and research on intergenerational transmission or "communication" of violent trauma and related psychopathology involving parents and very young children. [1] [2] [3] His published work in this area following the terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center in New York of September 11, 2001 led to a co-edited book entitled "September 11: Trauma and Human Bonds" (2003) [4] and additional original articles with clinical psychologist Susan Coates that were translated into multiple languages and remain among the first accounts of 9/11 related loss and trauma described by mental health professionals who also experienced the attacks and their aftermath [5] [6] [7] [8] Schechter observed that separation anxiety among infants and young children who had either lost or feared loss of their caregivers triggered posttraumatic stress symptoms in the surviving caregivers. These observations validated his prior work on the adverse impact of family violence on the early parent-child relationship, formative social-emotional development and related attachment disturbances involving mutual dysregulation of emotion and arousal. [9] [10] [11] This body of work on trauma and attachment has been cited by prominent authors in the attachment theory, psychological trauma, developmental psychobiology and neuroscience literatures [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] [17]

Contents

Career

Following studies in music and French literature (Oberlin Conservatory of Music, Columbia College (B.A.), and Columbia University Graduate School of Arts and Sciences (M.A.), Schechter then completed his medical training at the Columbia University College of Physicians & Surgeons. His earliest research examined the nature of mother-daughter relationships in the context of male-perpetrated child sexual abuse [18] as well as trauma-related culture-bound syndromes in an inner-city Caribbean Hispanic community. [19]

Funding through the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, allowed Schechter to travel to Tulane University in New Orleans, beginning in 1998, to study with infant mental health specialist Charles H. Zeanah. They subsequently collaborated on several projects and articles related to the effects of psychological trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) on the relationship of infants, young children, and their parents as well as related attachment disorder. [20] [21] This collaboration along with involvement as a Zero to Three: National Center for Infants, Toddlers, and Families Solnit Fellow (1999–2001), encouraged Schechter to pursue further research training in developmental neuroscience through a NIH-funded research fellowship in developmental psychobiology with Myron Hofer and Michael Myers at the New York State Psychiatric Institute. In 2003, Schechter received an NIMH Research Career Award to fund the project "Maternal Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Interactive Behavior with Very Young Children" which was completed in 2008. In that same year, Schechter was recruited to Geneva, Switzerland to become the Director of Pediatric Consult-Liaison and Parent-Child Research in the Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry at the University of Geneva Hospitals. [22] He served as Senior Lecturer in Psychiatry within the Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva from 2012 to 2022. [23]

In Geneva, his clinical research efforts [24] focused on the effects of parental violence-related traumatic stress on the parent-child relationship and child developmental outcomes in the domains of emotion and arousal regulation, together with related biomarkers, that might contribute to intergenerational cycles of violence and victimization. [25] [26] Schechter was appointed in 2018 as Barakett Associate Professor of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry at the New York University School of Medicine where he served as Director of the research Center for Stress, Trauma, and Resilience and Medical Director of Perinatal and Early Childhood Mental Health Services. [27] In July, 2019, he returned to Switzerland to assume medical directorship together with psychologist Josée Despars of a newly created parent-child ambulatory care program for ages 0-5 "PAPILLON" within the child and adolescent psychiatry service (SUPEA) of the Lausanne University Hospital. There, he also co-directs with Dr. Mathilde Morisod the SUPEA Perinatal and Early Childhood Training and Research Group "SPECTRE". He is currently a tenured professor of psychiatry (in child and adolescent psychiatry) at the Faculty of Biology and Medicine of the Lausanne University. [28]

Schechter's work has received a number of awards including: Pierre Janet and Sandor Ferenczi Scientific Paper Prizes from the International Society for the Study of Trauma and Dissociation (2007 and 2018 respectively) [29] , the Hayman Prize for Best Published Work Relevant to Traumatized Children or Adults (2015) and multiple Significant Contribution to Research Awards from the International Psychoanalytical Association (2005, 2009, 2013, 2015, 2021, 2023) [30] , as well as three Norbert and Charlotte Rieger Paper Prizes from the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry (2010, 2015, 2017) [31] . His publications with psychologist Dominik Moser and neuroscientist Virginie Pointet were awarded Best Scientific Paper Prizes by the French Psychiatric Association (2014, 2019) and the French Society of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry (2024). [32] [33] [34] [35] [36] He has additionally received the John J. Weber Research Prize from Columbia University and the Kernberg Scientific Achievement Award from Cornell University Departments of Psychiatry respectively [37] [38]

Helping traumatized parents "change their minds about their young children"

During his work as director of infant mental health services at the Columbia University Medical Center (1998–2008), Schechter found that the large majority of inner-city mothers who were requesting consultation for their infants and young children for reasons of behavioral difficulties had histories of childhood maltreatment and/or family violence victimization and exposure, often with related psychiatric sequelae (i.e. PTSD, major depression, dissociation, and personality disorder). He further observed that many of these traumatized mothers, despite their best intentions, not only had great difficulty in "reading" and tolerating their infants' distress, but that they also had a tendency to misattribute their children's intentions and personality characteristics. [39] [40] As a result, the child, in an effort to maintain an attachment with the traumatized parent, would conform to these misattributions and/or attempt to join the parent's hypervigilant mental state, leading to a traumatically skewed intersubjectivity [41] Children of these traumatized mothers also show increased PTSD symptoms, externalizing symptoms and attachment disturbances that are mediated by maternal PTSD severity. [42] [43]

Schechter and colleagues developed an experimental paradigm informed by attachment theory called the Clinician Assisted Videofeedback Exposure Sessions (CAVES) to test whether mothers could "change their mind" about their young children if helped to watch video-excerpts of play, separation and similarly stressful moments in the presence of a clinician who asks the mother to think about what she (and her child) might be thinking and feeling at the time of the excerpt and at the moment of videofeedback. Thus this technique applies principles of mentalization as an aide to emotional regulation with traumatized parents [44] [45] This technique also involves elements of prolonged exposure treatment—in other words confronting avoidance of trauma-related negative emotions, [46] the video-based treatment Interaction Guidance, [47] [48] and psychodynamically oriented child-parent psychotherapy [49] Schechter and colleagues showed a significant change in the way mothers perceived their own child and their relationship together. [50] Schechter, Rusconi Serpa, and colleagues have manualized a 16-session psychotherapy for violence-exposed mothers, their infants and young children that builds upon the CAVES technique. This treatment is called Clinician Assisted Videofeedback Exposure-Approach Therapy (CAVEAT) and currently is in funded open-trial. [51]

Intergenerational communication of violent trauma

Schechter has studied how the distressed toddler can trigger a parent's posttraumatic stress marked by a) emotional unavailability or frank avoidance and b) how parents communicate— often unintentionally, memories of their own violent traumatic experiences. In relation to emotional unavailability, Schechter and colleagues' found that mothers with interpersonal-violence related PTSD, while not showing differences in their capacity to jointly attend to play with their toddlers before a stressor when compared to control-subjects, show significant limitation in their responsiveness to their toddlers upon reunion following separation stress. This is despite the finding that children of PTSD mothers show no greater distress during separation than those of controls. [52] And in relation to communication of traumatic experience, following from the work of Scheeringa and Zeanah, Schechter explored the implicit and explicit non-verbal and verbal ways parents communicate their traumatic experiences to their children who may or may not have been present during these violent events. [53] In particular, Schechter has shown how a parent can vicariously and unintentionally transmit her prior experiences of interpersonal violence to her child through her behavior and narrative associations by doing or saying something— or drawing connections between actions and/or language, that the child cannot place in any familiar context, but that is by its nature, frightening or even traumatizing. His work has demonstrated this both in routine daily interactions, laboratory observations, and in violent-media viewing practices by mothers and their toddlers in the home. [54] [55] [56] [57] He has hypothesized that this inadvertent intergenerational transmission is often an effect of traumatized mothers' efforts to control their own psychophysiological dysregulation that is linked to their posttraumatic psychopathology. This was, for example, demonstrated with regards to the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis in the first publication on maternal physiologic response to child separation, and in a parallel study subsequently, in relation to the autonomic nervous system response. [58] [59]

Schechter and colleagues have in addition to maternal behavioral and physiological dysregulation, also found at the level of maternal brain activity, corticolimbic dysregulation on functional neuroimaging as associated with maternal PTSD and dissociative symptoms in response to child separation and adult male-female violence-related video-stimuli in both New York and Geneva samples [60] [61] [62] The same pattern of corticolimbic dysregulation has also been associated with increased parenting stress, HPA axis dysregulation as marked by decreased methylation of the glucocorticoid receptor gene, and observed child behavioral difficulty during mother-child play. [63]

An important motivation for traumatized parents, Schechter and colleagues have found is the conscious aim of the traumatized parent to interrupt intergenerational cycles of violence and trauma so that her child does not have to suffer the emotional and often physical pain that she had experienced as a child. As Schechter and Willheim describe, this can be a long and difficult process for families—and one that requires that the therapist be prepared to intervene thoughtfully (i.e. modeling and stimulating parental mentalization) as much in-the-moment in response to real-life events reported by the parents and professionals (i.e. pediatricians, daycare and preschool staff, child protective agencies, the courts) as during parent-child sessions. [64] The work with parents and their relationship with their child often needs to continue, when possible and feasible. [65] As infants and young children and their needs are so rapidly developing, and as their parents find themselves in a parallel phase of adult development during which they are more open to change, the therapist can be surprised by quick, positive shifts in relational patterns within the context of both brief consultations and long-term treatments such as for caregivers with complex PTSD and their young children. [66] [67] [68]

Infant and early childhood mental health advocacy

Schechter served as a key member of the New York City Early Childhood Mental Health Strategic Work Group, an advisory group to the New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene under the direction of Evelyn Blanck from 2004 to 2008. In 2005, the Workgroup published a White Paper,“Promoting the Mental Health and Healthy Development of New York’s Infants, Toddlers and Preschoolers, A Call to Action,” that has been used to effectively advocate for mental health services for children from birth to age 5 across all child-serving systems in New York City and New York State. [69] This paper was instrumental in the inclusion of infants and toddlers in the Child and Families Clinic Plus Initiative implemented by the New York State Office of Mental Health, thus officially recognized for the first time as under the responsibility for care by state licensed child and adolescent mental health clinical programs. [70] An updated version of the White Paper was reviewed favorably in 2011 by the New York State Mental Health Commissioner's Office.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Physical abuse</span> Medical condition

Physical abuse is any intentional act causing injury or trauma to another person or animal by way of bodily contact. In most cases, children are the victims of physical abuse, but adults can also be victims, as in cases of domestic violence or workplace aggression. Alternative terms sometimes used include physical assault or physical violence, and may also include sexual abuse. Physical abuse may involve more than one abuser, and more than one victim.

Attachment disorder is a broad term intended to describe disorders of mood, behavior, and social relationships arising from unavailability of normal socializing care and attention from primary caregiving figures in early childhood. Such a failure would result from unusual early experiences of neglect, abuse, abrupt separation from caregivers between three months and three years of age, frequent change or excessive numbers of caregivers, or lack of caregiver responsiveness to child communicative efforts resulting in a lack of basic trust. A problematic history of social relationships occurring after about age three may be distressing to a child, but does not result in attachment disorder.

Reactive attachment disorder (RAD) is described in clinical literature as a severe disorder that can affect children, although these issues do occasionally persist into adulthood. RAD is characterized by markedly disturbed and developmentally inappropriate ways of relating socially in most contexts. It can take the form of a persistent failure to initiate or respond to most social interactions in a developmentally appropriate way—known as the "inhibited form". In the DSM-5, the "disinhibited form" is considered a separate diagnosis named "disinhibited attachment disorder".

Psychological trauma is an emotional response caused by severe distressing events that are outside the normal range of human experiences. It must be understood by the affected person as directly threatening the affected person or their loved ones with death, severe bodily injury, or sexual violence; indirect exposure, such as from watching television news, may be extremely distressing and can produce an involuntary and possibly overwhelming physiological stress response, but does not produce trauma per se. Examples of distressing events include violence, rape, or a terrorist attack.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Maternal bond</span> Relationship between mother and child

A maternal bond is the relationship between a biological mother/caregiver and her child or baby. While typically associated with pregnancy and childbirth, a maternal bond may also develop in cases later on in life where the child is unrelated, such as in the case of an adoptee or a case of blended family.

Selma Fraiberg (1918–1981) was an American child psychoanalyst, author and social worker.

The term cycle of violence refers to repeated and dangerous acts of violence as a cyclical pattern, associated with high emotions and doctrines of retribution or revenge. The pattern, or cycle, repeats and can happen many times during a relationship. Each phase may last a different length of time, and over time the level of violence may increase. The phrase has been increasingly widespread since first popularized in the 1970s.

Complex post-traumatic stress disorder is a stress-related mental disorder generally occurring in response to complex traumas, i.e., commonly prolonged or repetitive exposures to a series of traumatic events, within which individuals perceive little or no chance to escape.

Childhood trauma is often described as serious adverse childhood experiences (ACEs). Children may go through a range of experiences that classify as psychological trauma; these might include neglect, abandonment, sexual abuse, emotional abuse, and physical abuse, witnessing abuse of a sibling or parent, or having a mentally ill parent. These events have profound psychological, physiological, and sociological impacts and can have negative, lasting effects on health and well-being such as unsocial behaviors, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and sleep disturbances. Similarly, children whose mothers have experienced traumatic or stressful events during pregnancy have an increased risk of mental health disorders and other neurodevelopmental disorders.

In psychology, mentalization is the ability to understand the mental state – of oneself or others – that underlies overt behaviour. Mentalization can be seen as a form of imaginative mental activity that lets us perceive and interpret human behaviour in terms of intentional mental states. It is sometimes described as "understanding misunderstanding." Another term that David Wallin has used for mentalization is "Thinking about thinking". Mentalization can occur either automatically or consciously. Mentalization ability, or mentalizing, is weakened by intense emotion.

Infant mental health is the study of mental health as it applies to infants, toddlers, and their families. The field investigates optimal social and emotional development of infants and their families in the first three years of life. Cognitive development, and the development of motor skills may also be considered part of the infant mental health picture. While the interest in the mental life of infants in the context of their early relationships can be traced back to the work of Anna Freud, John Bowlby, and Donald Winnicott in Great Britain, infant mental health as a movement of public health policy, empirical research, and change in clinical practice paralleled both that of the women's movement and of increased awareness of the prevalence and consequences of child abuse and neglect during the 1960s and 1970s. The vast literature that has emerged since the field's origins has been reviewed in several key texts. Basic principles of infant mental health evaluation and treatment involve consideration of at least three patients: parent(s), child, and their relationship, while keeping in mind the rapid and formative development of the brain and mind in the first years of life.

Charles H. Zeanah Jr. is a child and adolescent psychiatrist who is a member of the council (Board) of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry (AACAP).

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Reflective Parenting is a theory of parenting developed from the work of psychoanalyst Peter Fonagy and his colleagues at the Tavistock Clinic in London. Fonagy introduced the concept of “reflective functioning”, which is defined as the ability to imagine mental states in self and others. Through this capacity for reflection, we develop the ability to understand our own behavioral responses and the responses of others as a meaningful attempt to communicate those inner mental states. As Fonagy describes it, “reflective function is the… uniquely human capacity to make sense of each other”.

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Transgenerational trauma</span> Psychological trauma

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Maternal sensitivity</span>

Maternal sensitivity is a mother's ability to perceive and infer the meaning behind her infant's behavioural signals, and to respond to them promptly and appropriately. Maternal sensitivity affects child development at all stages through life, from infancy, all the way to adulthood. In general, more sensitive mothers have healthier, more socially and cognitively developed children than those who are not as sensitive. Also, maternal sensitivity has been found to affect the person psychologically even as an adult. Adults who experienced high maternal sensitivity during their childhood were found to be more secure than those who experienced less sensitive mothers. Once the adult becomes a parent themselves, their own understanding of maternal sensitivity will affect their own children's development. Some research suggests that adult mothers display more maternal sensitivity than adolescent mothers who may in turn have children with a lower IQ and reading level than children of adult mothers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Parental brain</span>

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The number of children in armed conflict zones are around 250 million. They confront physical and mental harms from war experiences.

References

  1. ↑ Mayer, KM. (December 10, 2001). Der Terror bleibt in den Menschen (The terror lingers...). Focus, Germany
  2. ↑ "Der 11. September: Die leise Stimme der Vernunft". 2004-05-10.
  3. ↑ Davaris, S. (March 18, 2011). Mon enfant peut-il me rendre fou (Can my child drive me crazy?). Tribune de Genève, Switzerland. [ permanent dead link ]
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  5. ↑ Schechter DS, Coates SW, First E (2002). Observations of acute reactions of young children and their families to the World Trade Center attacks. Journal of ZERO-TO-THREE: National Center for Infants, Toddlers, and Families, 22(3), 9-13.
  6. ↑ Schechter DS, Coates SW, First F (2003). Beobachtungen von akuten Reaktionen kleiner Kinder und ihrer Familien auf die Anschläge auf das World Trade Center. In T. Auchter, C. Buettner, U. Schultz-Venrath, H.-J. Wirth (Eds.): Der 11. September. Psychoanalytische, psychosoziale und psychohistorische Analysen von Terror und Trauma. Giessen, Germany: Psychosozial-Verlag. pp. 268-280
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  8. ↑ "Messages from those lost on Sept. 11". Stamfordadvocate. 2010-09-13.
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  10. ↑ Schechter DS, Coates, SW, Kaminer T, Coots T, Zeanah CH, Davies M, Schonfield IS, Marshall RD, Liebowitz MR Trabka KA, McCaw J, Myers MM (2008). Distorted maternal mental representations and atypical behavior in a clinical sample of violence-exposed mothers and their toddlers. Journal of Trauma & Dissociation , 9(2), 123-149.
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  44. ↑ Fonagy, P., Gergely, G., Jurist, E.L., Target, M. (2002). Affect Regulation, Mentalization, and the Development of the Self. London: Other Press, Inc.
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  50. ↑ Schechter DS, Myers MM, Brunelli SA, Coates SW, Zeanah CH, Davies M, Grienenberger JF, Marshall RD, McCaw JE, Trabka KA, Liebowitz MR (2006). Traumatized mothers can change their minds about their toddlers: Understanding how a novel use of videofeedback supports positive change of maternal attributions. Infant Mental Health Journal, 27(5), 429-448.
  51. ↑ https://clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT06552832?intr=CAVEAT&rank=2
  52. ↑ Schechter DS, Willheim E, Hinojosa C, Scholfield-Kleinman K, Turner JB, McCaw J, Zeanah CH, Myers MM. (2010). Subjective and objective measures of parent-child relationship dysfunction, child separation distress, and joint attention. Psychiatry;73(2):130-44.
  53. ↑ Scheeringa, M.S., Zeanah, C.H. (2001). A relational perspective on PTSD in early childhood. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 14(4), 799-815
  54. ↑ Schechter DS, Coots T, Zeanah CH, Davies, M, Coates SW, Trabka KA, Marshall RD, Liebowitz MR, Myers MM (2005). Maternal mental representations of the child in an inner-city clinical sample: Violence-related posttraumatic stress and reflective functioning. Attachment and Human Development, 7(3), 313-331.
  55. ↑ Schechter DS (2003). Intergenerational communication of maternal violent trauma: Understanding the interplay of reflective functioning and posttraumatic psychopathology. In S.W. Coates, J.L. Rosenthal and D.S. Schechter (eds.) September 11: Trauma and Human Bonds. New York: Taylor & Francis, Inc., pp. 115-142.
  56. ↑ Schechter DS, Kaminer, T, Grienenberger JF, Amat J (2003). Fits and starts: A mother-infant case study involving pseudoseizures across three generations in the context of violent trauma history.
  57. ↑ Schechter DS, Gross A, Willheim E, McCaw J, Turner JB, Myers MM, Zeanah CH, Gleason MM (2009). Is maternal PTSD associated with greater exposure of very young children to violent media? Journal of Traumatic Stress. 22(6), 658-662.
  58. ↑ Schechter DS, Zeanah CH, Myers MM, Brunelli SA, Liebowitz MR, Marshall RD, Coates SW, Trabka KT, Baca P, Hofer MA (2004). Psychobiological dysregulation in violence-exposed mothers: Salivary cortisol of mothers with very young children pre- and post-separation stress. Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic, 68(4), 319-337.
  59. ↑ Schechter DS, Moser DA, McCaw JE, Myers MM (in press; epub 11.06.2013). Autonomic functioning in mothers with interpersonal violence-exposure related posttraumatic stress disorder in response to the stressor of separation-reunion. Developmental Psychobiology.56(4):748-60.
  60. ↑ Schechter, Daniel S; Moser, Dominik A; Wang, Zhishun; Marsh, Rachel; Hao, Xuejun; Duan, Yunsuo; Yu, Shan; Gunter, Benjamin; Murphy, David; McCaw, Jaime; Kangarlu, Alayar; Willheim, Erica; Myers, Michael M; Hofer, Myron A; Peterson, Bradley S (2012). "An fMRI study of the brain responses of traumatized mothers to viewing their toddlers during separation and play". Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience. 7 (8): 969–79. doi:10.1093/scan/nsr069. PMC   3501701 . PMID   22021653.
  61. ↑ Moser, Dominik Andreas; Aue, Tatjana; Wang, Zhishun; Rusconi Serpa, Sandra; Favez, Nicolas; Peterson, Bradley Scott; Schechter, Daniel Scott (2013). "Limbic brain responses in mothers with post-traumatic stress disorder and comorbid dissociation to video clips of their children". Stress. 16 (5): 493–502. doi:10.3109/10253890.2013.816280. PMID   23777332. S2CID   34731243.
  62. ↑ Moser, Dominik A; Aue, Tatjana; Suardi, Francesca; Kutlikova, Hana; Cordero, Maria I; Rossignol, Ana Sancho; Favez, Nicolas; Rusconi Serpa, Sandra; Schechter, Daniel S (2015). "Violence-related PTSD and neural activation when seeing emotionally charged male–female interactions". Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience. 10 (5): 645–53. doi:10.1093/scan/nsu099. PMC   4420740 . PMID   25062841.
  63. ↑ Schechter, Daniel S; Moser, Dominik A; Paoloni-Giacobino, Ariane; Stenz, Ludwig; Gex-Fabry, Marianne; Aue, Tatjana; Adouan, Wafae; Cordero, Marãa I; Suardi, Francesca; Manini, Aurelia; Sancho Rossignol, Ana; Merminod, GaÃ"lle; Ansermet, Francois; Dayer, Alexandre G; Rusconi Serpa, Sandra (2015). "Methylation of NR3C1 is related to maternal PTSD, parenting stress and maternal medial prefrontal cortical activity in response to child separation among mothers with histories of violence exposure". Frontiers in Psychology. 6: 690. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00690 . PMC   4447998 . PMID   26074844.
  64. ↑ Jellinek, Michael S; Henderson, Schuyler W; Schechter, Daniel S; Willheim, Erica (2009). "When Parenting Becomes Unthinkable: Intervening with Traumatized Parents and Their Toddlers". Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry. 48 (3): 249–53. doi:10.1097/CHI.0b013e3181948ff1. PMID   19242290.
  65. ↑ Almeida A, Merminod G, Schechter DS (2009). Mothers with severe psychiatric illness and their newborns: a hospital-based model of perinatal consultation. Journal of ZERO-TO-THREE: National Center for Infants, Toddlers, and Families, 29(5), 40-46.
  66. ↑ Schechter, Daniel S; Moser, Dominik A; Reliford, Aaron; McCaw, Jaime E; Coates, Susan W; Turner, J. Blake; Serpa, Sandra Rusconi; Willheim, Erica (2014). "Negative and Distorted Attributions Towards Child, Self, and Primary Attachment Figure Among Posttraumatically Stressed Mothers: What Changes with Clinician Assisted Videofeedback Exposure Sessions (CAVES)". Child Psychiatry & Human Development. 46 (1): 10–20. doi:10.1007/s10578-014-0447-5. PMC   4139484 . PMID   24553738.
  67. ↑ Schechter, Daniel S; Myers, Michael M; Brunelli, Susan A; Coates, Susan W; Zeanah, Jr, Charles H; Davies, Mark; Grienenberger, John F; Marshall, Randall D; McCaw, Jaime E; Trabka, Kimberly A; Liebowitz, Michael R (2006). "Traumatized mothers can change their minds about their toddlers: Understanding how a novel use of video feedback supports positive change of maternal attributions". Infant Mental Health Journal. 27 (5): 429–447. doi:10.1002/imhj.20101. PMC   2078524 . PMID   18007960.
  68. ↑ Coates, Susan; Schechter, Daniel (2004). "Preschoolers' traumatic stress post-9/11: Relational and developmental perspectives". Psychiatric Clinics of North America. 27 (3): 473–89. doi:10.1016/j.psc.2004.03.006. PMID   15325488.
  69. ↑ http://www.docsfortots.org/documents/NYCMentalHCalltoAction.doc%5B%5D%5B%5D
  70. ↑ http://www.omh.ny.gov/omhweb/clinicplus/%5B%5D%5B%5D
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