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The immune system is a network of biological systems that protects an organism from diseases. It detects and responds to a wide variety of pathogens,from viruses to parasitic worms,as well as cancer cells and objects such as wood splinters,distinguishing them from the organism's own healthy tissue. Many species have two major subsystems of the immune system. The innate immune system provides a preconfigured response to broad groups of situations and stimuli. The adaptive immune system provides a tailored response to each stimulus by learning to recognize molecules it has previously encountered. Both use molecules and cells to perform their functions.
Inflammation is part of the biological response of body tissues to harmful stimuli,such as pathogens,damaged cells,or irritants. The five cardinal signs are heat,pain,redness,swelling,and loss of function.
Macrophages are a type of white blood cell of the innate immune system that engulf and digest pathogens,such as cancer cells,microbes,cellular debris,and foreign substances,which do not have proteins that are specific to healthy body cells on their surface. This process is called phagocytosis,which acts to defend the host against infection and injury.
Granulocytes are cells in the innate immune system characterized by the presence of specific granules in their cytoplasm. Such granules distinguish them from the various agranulocytes. All myeloblastic granulocytes are polymorphonuclear,that is,they have varying shapes (morphology) of the nucleus;and are referred to as polymorphonuclear leukocytes. In common terms,polymorphonuclear granulocyte refers specifically to "neutrophil granulocytes",the most abundant of the granulocytes;the other types have varying morphology. Granulocytes are produced via granulopoiesis in the bone marrow.
Chemokines,or chemotactic cytokines,are a family of small cytokines or signaling proteins secreted by cells that induce directional movement of leukocytes,as well as other cell types,including endothelial and epithelial cells. In addition to playing a major role in the activation of host immune responses,chemokines are important for biological processes,including morphogenesis and wound healing,as well as in the pathogenesis of diseases like cancers.
Interferon gamma is a dimerized soluble cytokine that is the only member of the type II class of interferons. The existence of this interferon,which early in its history was known as immune interferon,was described by E. F. Wheelock as a product of human leukocytes stimulated with phytohemagglutinin,and by others as a product of antigen-stimulated lymphocytes. It was also shown to be produced in human lymphocytes. or tuberculin-sensitized mouse peritoneal lymphocytes challenged with Mantoux test (PPD);the resulting supernatants were shown to inhibit growth of vesicular stomatitis virus. Those reports also contained the basic observation underlying the now widely employed interferon gamma release assay used to test for tuberculosis. In humans,the IFNG protein is encoded by the IFNG gene.
Interleukin 8 is a chemokine produced by macrophages and other cell types such as epithelial cells,airway smooth muscle cells and endothelial cells. Endothelial cells store IL-8 in their storage vesicles,the Weibel–Palade bodies. In humans,the interleukin-8 protein is encoded by the CXCL8 gene. IL-8 is initially produced as a precursor peptide of 99 amino acids which then undergoes cleavage to create several active IL-8 isoforms. In culture,a 72 amino acid peptide is the major form secreted by macrophages.
The innate immune system or nonspecific immune system is one of the two main immunity strategies in vertebrates. The innate immune system is an alternate defense strategy and is the dominant immune system response found in plants,fungi,prokaryotes,and invertebrates.
ICAM-1 also known as CD54 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ICAM1 gene. This gene encodes a cell surface glycoprotein which is typically expressed on endothelial cells and cells of the immune system. It binds to integrins of type CD11a / CD18,or CD11b / CD18 and is also exploited by rhinovirus as a receptor for entry into respiratory epithelium.
Interleukin-23 subunit alpha is a protein that in humans is encoded by the IL23A gene. The protein is also known as IL-23p19. It is one of the two subunits of the cytokine Interleukin-23.
Interleukin 19 (IL-19) is an immunosuppressive protein that belongs to the IL-10 cytokine subfamily.
Chemokine ligands 4 previously known as macrophage inflammatory protein (MIP-1β),is a protein which in humans is encoded by the CCL4 gene. CCL4 belongs to a cluster of genes located on 17q11-q21 of the chromosomal region. Identification and localization of the gene on the chromosome 17 was in 1990 although the discovery of MIP-1 was initiated in 1988 with the purification of a protein doublet corresponding to inflammatory activity from supernatant of endotoxin-stimulated murine macrophages. At that time,it was also named as "macrophage inflammatory protein-1" (MIP-1) due to its inflammatory properties.
Chemokine ligand 9 (CXCL9) is a small cytokine belonging to the CXC chemokine family that is also known as monokine induced by gamma interferon (MIG). The CXCL9 is one of the chemokine which plays role to induce chemotaxis,promote differentiation and multiplication of leukocytes,and cause tissue extravasation.
In immunology,leukocyte extravasation is the movement of leukocytes out of the circulatory system (extravasation) and towards the site of tissue damage or infection. This process forms part of the innate immune response,involving the recruitment of non-specific leukocytes. Monocytes also use this process in the absence of infection or tissue damage during their development into macrophages.
Testicular Immunology is the study of the immune system within the testis. It includes an investigation of the effects of infection,inflammation and immune factors on testicular function. Two unique characteristics of testicular immunology are evident:(1) the testis is described as an immunologically privileged site,where suppression of immune responses occurs;and,(2) some factors which normally lead to inflammation are present at high levels in the testis,where they regulate the development of sperm instead of promoting inflammation.
Fc fragment of IgA receptor (FCAR) is a human gene that codes for the transmembrane receptor FcαRI,also known as CD89. FcαRI binds the heavy-chain constant region of Immunoglobulin A (IgA) antibodies. FcαRI is present on the cell surface of myeloid lineage cells,including neutrophils,monocytes,macrophages,and eosinophils,though it is notably absent from intestinal macrophages and does not appear on mast cells. FcαRI plays a role in both pro- and anti-inflammatory responses depending on the state of IgA bound. Inside-out signaling primes FcαRI in order for it to bind its ligand,while outside-in signaling caused by ligand binding depends on FcαRI association with the Fc receptor gamma chain.
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to immunology:
Immunology is the study of the immune system during health and disease. Below is a list of immunology-related articles.
Regulatory macrophages (Mregs) represent a subset of anti-inflammatory macrophages. In general,macrophages are a very dynamic and plastic cell type and can be divided into two main groups:classically activated macrophages (M1) and alternatively activated macrophages (M2). M2 group can further be divided into sub-groups M2a,M2b,M2c,and M2d. Typically the M2 cells have anti-inflammatory and regulatory properties and produce many different anti-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-4,IL-33,IL-10,IL-1RA,and TGF-β. M2 cells can also secrete angiogenic and chemotactic factors. These cells can be distinguished based on the different expression levels of various surface proteins and the secretion of different effector molecules.
Macrophage polarization is a process by which macrophages adopt different functional programs in response to the signals from their microenvironment. This ability is connected to their multiple roles in the organism:they are powerful effector cells of the innate immune system,but also important in removal of cellular debris,embryonic development and tissue repair.
References
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- ↑ "David M Mosser - Google Scholar".
- ↑ "Reach - Annual Report 2017" (PDF).
- ↑ "In Conversation with Dr. David Mosser, Chair of the Maryland Stem Cell Research Commission".
- ↑ "January 2004" (PDF).
- ↑ "ASM News" (PDF).
- ↑ "mBio - Board of Editors".
- ↑ "Frontiers in Immunology - Board of Editors".
- ↑ "Microbiology Spectrum - Board of Editors".
- ↑ "Impact Study: Maryland Stem Cell Research Fund Awards $140 Million in Support of Research Projects, Generates 1,400 Maryland Jobs".
- ↑ Edwards, J. P.; Zhang, X.; Mosser, D. M. (2009). "The expression of heparin-binding epidermal growth factor-like growth factor by regulatory macrophages". Journal of Immunology. 182 (4): 1929–39. doi:10.4049/jimmunol.0802703. PMC 2872542 . PMID 19201846.
- ↑ Marino, John P.; Briggs, Katharine T.; Cohen, Heather; Ravid, Katya; Robson, Simon C.; Mosser, David M. (12 September 2013). "TLR stimulation initiates a CD39-based autoregulatory mechanism that limits macrophage inflammatory responses". pp. 1935–1945.
- ↑ Cao, S.; Zhang, X.; Edwards, J. P.; Mosser, D. M. (2006). "NF-kappaB1 (p50) homodimers differentially regulate pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines in macrophages". The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 281 (36): 26041–50. doi: 10.1074/jbc.M602222200 . PMC 2642587 . PMID 16835236.
- ↑ Christensen, Stephen M.; Dillon, Laura A. L.; Carvalho, Lucas P.; Passos, Sara; Novais, Fernanda O.; Hughitt, V. Keith; Beiting, Daniel P.; Carvalho, Edgar M.; Scott, Phillip; El-Sayed, Najib M.; Mosser, David M. (2016). "Meta-transcriptome Profiling of the Human-Leishmania braziliensis Cutaneous Lesion". PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases. 10 (9): e0004992. doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0004992 . PMC 5025153 . PMID 27631090.
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