Daydreaming

Last updated
1912 postcard illustrating the concept of a man daydreaming about a woman who is not present Daydreaming Gentleman.jpg
1912 postcard illustrating the concept of a man daydreaming about a woman who is not present

Daydreaming is a stream of consciousness that detaches from current external tasks when one's attention becomes focused on a more personal and internal direction.

Contents

Various names of this phenomenon exist, including mind-wandering, fantasies, and spontaneous thoughts. There are many types of daydreams – however, the most common characteristic to all forms of daydreaming meets the criteria for mild dissociation. In addition, the impacts of the various types of daydreams are not identical. While some are disruptive and deleterious, others may be beneficial to some degree.

The term daydreaming is derived from clinical psychologist Jerome L. Singer, whose research created the foundation for nearly all subsequent modern research. The terminologies assigned by modern researchers brings about challenges centering on identifying the common features of daydreaming and building collective work among researchers. [1]

Characteristics and types of daydreaming

Daydreaming consists of self-generated thoughts comprising three distinct categories: thoughts concerning the future and oneself, reflections on the past and others, and the emotional tone of experiences. [2]

Psychologist Jerome L. Singer established three different types of daydreaming and their characteristics, varying in their cognitive states and emotional experiences. These included positive constructive daydreaming, characterized by constructive engagement, planning, pleasant thoughts, vivid imagery, and curiosity; guilty-dysphoric daydreaming, marked by obsessive, guilt-ridden, and anguished fantasies; and poor attentional control, reflecting difficulty focusing on either internal thoughts or external tasks.

Different daydreaming styles have various effects on certain behaviours, such as creativity. [3]

Functions of daydreaming

Future thinking

Daydreaming can be a useful tool to help keep people mindful of their relevant goals, such as imagining future success of a goal to motivate accomplishing a difficult or uninteresting task. [4]

Creative thinking

This function of daydreaming is associated with increased creativity in individuals. [5] The frequency of daydreaming is the highest during simple tasks. [6] It is hypothesized that daydreaming plays an important role in generating creative problem-solving processes. [7] Studies have found that intentional daydreaming is more effective when focused on creative thought processing, rather than spontaneous or disruptive daydreams. [4]

Attentional cycling

Attentional cycling is an adaptive function of daydreaming through which a person’s attention may cycle through multiple target problems at the same time, helping the individual remain positive. When people have a variety of goals, daydreaming can provide an opportunity for people to alternate across different streams of information and thoughts in a healthy way. [7]

Dishabituation

A change in the daydreaming state can lead to dishabituation, a function that can be beneficial during a learning process as it renews attention and interest in stimuli that have become repetitive. One research identified this effect in learning and showed that learning is more effective with distributed practices over time rather than massed practices all at once. [8] Daydreaming can provide a break to allow thoughts to drift away from intensive learning. When you return, you will be able to focus again with the ability to continue focusing on attention-demanding tasks. [7]

Relief from boredom

When people are performing mundane tasks, daydreaming allows their thoughts to detach from current external tasks to relieve boredom. At the same time, this temporary detachment will not stop external activities completely when they are necessary. As a result, daydreaming can cause the perception that time moves more quickly. [7]

Visualizing social scenarios

Daydreaming can also be used to imagine social situations. Social daydreaming is imagining past social occurrences and future events and conversations. [9] According to research, daydreaming and social cognition have strong overlapping similarities when activated portions of the brain are observed. [10] [11] These findings indicate that daydreaming is an extension of the brain's experience of social cognition. This is likely because daydreams are often focused on the mental representations of social events, experiences, and people.

The correlation between social daydreaming and positive social relationships suggests that daydreaming about close others can enhance social well-being, [12] reduce loneliness, [13] and increase relationship satisfaction. [14] Recent studies indicate that social daydreaming serves immediate socio-emotional regulation purposes, [15] particularly in fostering feelings of love and connection, suggesting its adaptive role in achieving goals.

Default mode network

According to several studies, daydreaming appears to be the brain's default setting when no other external task is occupying its attention. A group of regions in the brain called the default mode network is lit up only when the brain is left in a sort of ‘idle’ state. These areas of the brain light up in sequence only when daydreaming. [16] [10]

Functional theories

There has yet to be a consensus on how the process of mind wandering occurs. [17] Three theories have been devised to explain the occurrences and reasons behind why people daydream. These theories are the distractibility account, executive-function account, and the decoupling account. [18]

The distractibility account theorizes that distracting stimuli, whether internal or external, reflect a failure to disregard or control distractions in the mind. [19] According to this theory, the brain activity increases in response to an increase in attention to mind-wandering and the mind tends to dwell on task unrelated thoughts (TUT's). [18]

The executive-function account theorizes that the mind fails to correctly process task relevant events. This theory is based on the observation of TUT causes an increase in errors regarding task focused thinking, especially tasks requiring executive control. [17] [18]

The decoupling account suggests that attention becomes removed, or decoupled, from perceptual information involving an external task, and couples to an internal process. In this process, TUT is enhanced as internal thoughts are disengaged from surrounding distractions as the participant ‘tunes out’ the surrounding environment. [18] [19]

Psychological studies and research

Nighttime dreams

Daydream by Paul Cesar Helleu Helleu - Daydream.jpg
Daydream by Paul César Helleu

Freudian psychology interpreted daydreaming as an expression of the repressed instincts, similarly to those revealing themselves in nighttime dreams. In contrast to nighttime dreams, there seems to be a process of "secondary revision" in fantasies that makes them more lucid, like daydreaming. The state of daydreaming is a kind of liminal state between waking (with the ability to think rationally and logically) and sleeping. [20]

Self-reflection

Daydreaming can also be used to reveal personal aspects about an individual. In an experiment directed by Robert Desoille, subjects were asked to imagine different objects over the course of different rounds. Those who imagined more details and sleek objects often saw themselves as more useful and held the belief that they were more capable of growth. Through the daydream, which involved many fantastical elements, characteristics such as a fear of men or a desire to subdue a selfish personality trait were often revealed. [21]

Self-focused daydreaming can be positive (i.e. a self-reflection) or negative (i.e. a rumination). [17] This will result in either  increased happiness, anti-depressant thinking, rational planning, creativity, and positivism, or conversely, over-thinking negative experiences from the past, pessimistic views of the future, negative mood-episodes, guilt, fear, and poor attention controls. [22] [17]

Everyday use

Eric Klinger's research in the 1980s showed that most daydreams are about ordinary, everyday events and help to remind us of mundane tasks. Klinger's research also showed that over 75% of workers in "boring jobs", such as lifeguards and truck drivers, use vivid daydreams to "ease the boredom" of their routine tasks. [23]

Drawbacks and benefits

Vittorio Matteo Corcos, Dreams, 1896. (Treviso) Sogni by Vittorio Matteo Corcos - Rome Galleria nazionale d'arte moderna.jpg
Vittorio Matteo Corcos, Dreams, 1896.

Some of the major costs of daydreaming summarized by the review are worse performances with reading, sustained attention, mood etc. [7]

The negative consequences of daydreaming on reading performance have been studied the most thoroughly. Research shows that there is a negative correlation between daydreaming frequency and reading comprehension performance, specifically worsened item-specific comprehension and model-building ability. [7]

Disruptive daydreams or spontaneous daydreaming is also characteristic of people with attention-deficit hyperactive disorder (ADHD). [24] [25]

Negative mood is another association of daydreaming. Research finds people generally report lower happiness when they are daydreaming than when they are not. For those experiencing positive daydreaming, the same happiness rating is reported between current tasks and pleasant things they are more likely to daydream about. This finding remains true across all activities. [7]

In the late 19th century, Toni Nelson argued that some daydreams with grandiose fantasies are self-gratifying attempts at "wish fulfillment". In the 1950s, some educational psychologists warned parents not to let their children daydream, for fear that the children may be sucked into "neurosis and even psychosis". [23]

While the cost of daydreaming is more thoroughly discussed, the associated benefit is understudied. One potential reason is the payoff of daydreaming is usually private and hidden compared to the measurable cost from external goal-directed tasks. It is hard to know and record people's private thoughts such as personal goals and dreams, so whether daydreaming supports these thoughts is difficult to discuss. [1]

Select research has argued that the mind is not idle during daydreaming, though it is at rest when not attentively engaging in external tasks. Rather, during this process, people indulge themselves in and reflect on fantasies, memories, future goals and psychological selves while still being able to control enough attention to keep easy tasks going and monitor the external environment. Thus, the potential benefits are the skills of internal reflection developed in daydreaming to connect emotional implication of daily life experience with personal meaning building process. [26]

Despite the detrimental impact of daydreaming on aptitude tests which most educational institutions put heavy emphasis on, scholars argue that it is important for children to get internal reflection skills from daydreaming. Research shows that children equipped with these skills have higher academic ability and are socially and emotionally better off. [26]

Besides believing that daydreaming is motivated by unconscious drives and desires, Sigmund Freud [27] also acknowledges that daydreaming can become excessive or pathological in some cases. Such instances can manifest as hysteria, neurosis, and psychopathology. When daydreaming becomes too detached from reality or interferes with everyday functioning, it may be indicative of deeper psychological issues or neurotic conflicts. While Freud didn’t explicitly correlate daydreaming to mental illness, he suggests that certain types of daydreams reflect underlying psychological disturbances.  

Various studies have also focused on maladaptive daydreaming, which describes vivid and elaborate daydreams for prolonged periods of time. [28] Individuals who are affected by maladaptive daydreaming often neglect their real-life relationships and obligations, leading to clinical distress and impaired functioning. According to research [29] the most common comorbidities associated with maladaptive daydreaming include attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, anxiety disorders, major depressive disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, schizotypal personality disorder and schizoid personality disorder.

Criticism and Limitations

Research on daydreaming faces challenges due to the difficulty in observing and measuring it compared to other mental tasks. [30] Instead of making broad conclusions about its benefits or drawbacks, researchers should focus on how the content and form of daydreams relate to specific adaptive outcomes. This involves using intensive longitudinal methods to track daydreams in real-world settings and linking them to measurable goals. Integration with social psychological theory can help understand how social daydreams impact social interactions and goal achievement. Combining neuroimaging studies with experience-sampling studies can offer insights into the neural mechanisms underlying the effects of daydreaming on social navigation. [31]

See also

Related Research Articles

Cognitive psychology is the scientific study of mental processes such as attention, language use, memory, perception, problem solving, creativity, and reasoning. Cognitive psychology originated in the 1960s in a break from behaviorism, which held from the 1920s to 1950s that unobservable mental processes were outside the realm of empirical science. This break came as researchers in linguistics and cybernetics, as well as applied psychology, used models of mental processing to explain human behavior. Work derived from cognitive psychology was integrated into other branches of psychology and various other modern disciplines like cognitive science, linguistics, and economics.

In psychology, a mood is an affective state. In contrast to emotions or feelings, moods are less specific, less intense and less likely to be provoked or instantiated by a particular stimulus or event. Moods are typically described as having either a positive or negative valence. In other words, people usually talk about being in a good mood or a bad mood. There are many different factors that influence mood, and these can lead to positive or negative effects on mood.

Social cognition is a topic within psychology that focuses on how people process, store, and apply information about other people and social situations. It focuses on the role that cognitive processes play in social interactions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Perfectionism (psychology)</span> Personality trait

Perfectionism, in psychology, is a broad personality trait characterized by a person's concern with striving for flawlessness and perfection and is accompanied by critical self-evaluations and concerns regarding others' evaluations. It is best conceptualized as a multidimensional and multilayered personality characteristic, and initially some psychologists thought that there were many positive and negative aspects.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Metacognition</span> Self-awareness about thinking, higher-order thinking skills

Metacognition is an awareness of one's thought processes and an understanding of the patterns behind them. The term comes from the root word meta, meaning "beyond", or "on top of". Metacognition can take many forms, such as reflecting on one's ways of thinking, and knowing when and how oneself and others use particular strategies for problem-solving. There are generally two components of metacognition: (1) cognitive conceptions and (2) cognitive regulation system. Research has shown that both components of metacognition play key roles in metaconceptual knowledge and learning. Metamemory, defined as knowing about memory and mnemonic strategies, is an important aspect of metacognition.

In psychology, a dual process theory provides an account of how thought can arise in two different ways, or as a result of two different processes. Often, the two processes consist of an implicit (automatic), unconscious process and an explicit (controlled), conscious process. Verbalized explicit processes or attitudes and actions may change with persuasion or education; though implicit process or attitudes usually take a long amount of time to change with the forming of new habits. Dual process theories can be found in social, personality, cognitive, and clinical psychology. It has also been linked with economics via prospect theory and behavioral economics, and increasingly in sociology through cultural analysis.

Mind-wandering is broadly defined as thoughts unrelated to the task at hand. Mind-wandering consists of thoughts that are task-unrelated and stimulus-independent. This can be in the form of three different subtypes: positive constructive daydreaming, guilty fear of failure, and poor attentional control.

Absent-mindedness is a mental state wherein a person is forgetfully inattentive. It is the opposite mental state of mindfulness.

The self-regulation of emotion or emotion regulation is the ability to respond to the ongoing demands of experience with the range of emotions in a manner that is socially tolerable and sufficiently flexible to permit spontaneous reactions as well as the ability to delay spontaneous reactions as needed. It can also be defined as extrinsic and intrinsic processes responsible for monitoring, evaluating, and modifying emotional reactions. The self-regulation of emotion belongs to the broader set of emotion regulation processes, which includes both the regulation of one's own feelings and the regulation of other people's feelings.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Default mode network</span> Large-scale brain network active when not focusing on an external task

In neuroscience, the default mode network (DMN), also known as the default network, default state network, or anatomically the medial frontoparietal network (M-FPN), is a large-scale brain network primarily composed of the dorsal medial prefrontal cortex, posterior cingulate cortex, precuneus and angular gyrus. It is best known for being active when a person is not focused on the outside world and the brain is at wakeful rest, such as during daydreaming and mind-wandering. It can also be active during detailed thoughts related to external task performance. Other times that the DMN is active include when the individual is thinking about others, thinking about themselves, remembering the past, and planning for the future. The DMN creates a coherent "internal narrative" control to the construction of a sense of self.

Some of the research that is conducted in the field of psychology is more "fundamental" than the research conducted in the applied psychological disciplines, and does not necessarily have a direct application. The subdisciplines within psychology that can be thought to reflect a basic-science orientation include biological psychology, cognitive psychology, neuropsychology, and so on. Research in these subdisciplines is characterized by methodological rigor. The concern of psychology as a basic science is in understanding the laws and processes that underlie behavior, cognition, and emotion. Psychology as a basic science provides a foundation for applied psychology. Applied psychology, by contrast, involves the application of psychological principles and theories yielded up by the basic psychological sciences; these applications are aimed at overcoming problems or promoting well-being in areas such as mental and physical health and education.

Fantasy-prone personality (FPP) is a disposition or personality trait in which a person experiences a lifelong, extensive, and deep involvement in fantasy. This disposition is an attempt, at least in part, to better describe "overactive imagination" or "living in a dream world". An individual with this trait may have difficulty differentiating between fantasy and reality and may experience hallucinations, as well as self-suggested psychosomatic symptoms. Closely related psychological constructs include daydreaming, absorption and eidetic memory.

Asociality refers to the lack of motivation to engage in social interaction, or a preference for solitary activities. Asociality may be associated with avolition, but it can, moreover, be a manifestation of limited opportunities for social relationships. Developmental psychologists use the synonyms nonsocial, unsocial, and social uninterest. Asociality is distinct from, but not mutually exclusive to, anti-social behavior. A degree of asociality is routinely observed in introverts, while extreme asociality is observed in people with a variety of clinical conditions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Attentional control</span> Individuals capacity to choose what they pay attention to and what they ignore

Attentional control, colloquially referred to as concentration, refers to an individual's capacity to choose what they pay attention to and what they ignore. It is also known as endogenous attention or executive attention. In lay terms, attentional control can be described as an individual's ability to concentrate. Primarily mediated by the frontal areas of the brain including the anterior cingulate cortex, attentional control and attentional shifting are thought to be closely related to other executive functions such as working memory.

A cognitive vulnerability in cognitive psychology is an erroneous belief, cognitive bias, or pattern of thought that predisposes an individual to psychological problems. The vulnerability exists before the symptoms of a psychological disorder appear. After the individual encounters a stressful experience, the cognitive vulnerability shapes a maladaptive response that increases the likelihood of a psychological disorder.

Jonathan Smallwood is a Professor in the Department of Psychology at Queen's University at Kingston in Ontario, Canada. His research uses the tools of cognitive neuroscience to investigate the process by which the brain self generates thoughts not arising from perception, such as during the experience of mind-wandering and daydreaming. For the last two years he has been recognised as one of the world's most highly cited scientists.

Emotional abandonment is a subjective emotional state in which people feel undesired, left behind, insecure, or discarded. People experiencing emotional abandonment may feel at a loss. They may feel like they have been cut off from a crucial source of sustenance or feel withdrawn, either suddenly or through a process of erosion. Emotional abandonment can manifest through loss or separation from a loved one.

Perseverative cognition is a collective term in psychology for continuous thinking about negative events in the past or in the future.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Maladaptive daydreaming</span> Trait associated with some mental disorders

Maladaptive daydreaming, also called excessive daydreaming, is when an individual experiences excessive daydreaming that interferes with daily life. It is a proposed diagnosis of a disordered form of dissociative absorption, associated with excessive fantasy that is not recognized by any major medical or psychological criteria. Maladaptive daydreaming can result in distress, can replace human interaction and may interfere with normal functioning such as social life or work. Maladaptive daydreaming is not a widely recognized diagnosis and is not found in any major diagnostic manual of psychiatry or medicine. The term was coined in 2002 by Eli Somer of the University of Haifa. Somer's definition of the proposed condition is "extensive fantasy activity that replaces human interaction and/or interferes with academic, interpersonal, or vocational functioning." There has been limited research outside of Somer's.

Social cognitive neuroscience is the scientific study of the biological processes underpinning social cognition. Specifically, it uses the tools of neuroscience to study "the mental mechanisms that create, frame, regulate, and respond to our experience of the social world". Social cognitive neuroscience uses the epistemological foundations of cognitive neuroscience, and is closely related to social neuroscience. Social cognitive neuroscience employs human neuroimaging, typically using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Human brain stimulation techniques such as transcranial magnetic stimulation and transcranial direct-current stimulation are also used. In nonhuman animals, direct electrophysiological recordings and electrical stimulation of single cells and neuronal populations are utilized for investigating lower-level social cognitive processes.

References

  1. 1 2 Singer, Jerome L.; Kaufman, Scott Barry; McMillan, Rebecca (2013). "Ode to positive constructive daydreaming". Frontiers in Psychology. 4: 626. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00626 . ISSN   1664-1078. PMC   3779797 . PMID   24065936.
  2. ↑ Poerio, Giulia Lara; Smallwood, Jonathan (November 2016). "Daydreaming to navigate the social world: What we know, what we don't know, and why it matters". Social and Personality Psychology Compass. 10 (11): 605–618. doi:10.1111/spc3.12288. ISSN   1751-9004.
  3. ↑ Zedelius, Claire M.; Schooler, Jonathan W. (2016). "The Richness of Inner Experience: Relating Styles of Daydreaming to Creative Processes". Frontiers in Psychology. 6: 2063. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.02063 . ISSN   1664-1078. PMC   4735674 . PMID   26869943.
  4. 1 2 (registration required)
  5. ↑ Baird, Benjamin; Smallwood, Jonathan; Mrazek, Michael D.; Kam, Julia W. Y.; Franklin, Michael S.; Schooler, Jonathan W. (2012-10-01). "Inspired by distraction: mind wandering facilitates creative incubation". Psychological Science. 23 (10): 1117–1122. doi:10.1177/0956797612446024. ISSN   1467-9280. PMID   22941876. S2CID   46281941.
  6. ↑ Smallwood, Jonathan; Schooler, Jonathan W. (November 2006). "The restless mind". Psychological Bulletin. 132 (6): 946–958. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.132.6.946. ISSN   1939-1455. PMID   17073528. S2CID   18882553.
  7. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Mooneyham, Benjamin W.; Schooler, Jonathan W. (March 2013). "The costs and benefits of mind-wandering: a review". Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology. 67 (1): 11–18. doi:10.1037/a0031569. ISSN   1878-7290. PMID   23458547.
  8. ↑ Underwood, Benton J.; Ekstrand, Bruce R. (1967). "Effect of distributed practice on paired-associate learning". Journal of Experimental Psychology. 73 (4, Pt. 2): 1–21. doi:10.1037/h0024341. ISSN   0022-1015.
  9. ↑ Honeycutt, James M.; Vickery, Andrea J.; Hatcher, Laura C. (2015-04-03). "The Daily Use of Imagined Interaction Features". Communication Monographs. 82 (2): 201–23. doi:10.1080/03637751.2014.953965. ISSN   0363-7751. S2CID   143513182.
  10. 1 2 Poerio, Giulia Lara; Smallwood, Jonathan (2016). "Daydreaming to navigate the social world: What we know, what we don't know, and why it matters" (PDF). Social and Personality Psychology Compass. 10 (11): 605–618. doi:10.1111/spc3.12288.
  11. ↑ (registration required)
  12. ↑ Mar, Raymond A.; Mason, Malia F.; Litvack, Aubrey (March 2012). "How daydreaming relates to life satisfaction, loneliness, and social support: The importance of gender and daydream content". Consciousness and Cognition. 21 (1): 401–407. doi:10.1016/j.concog.2011.08.001. ISSN   1053-8100. PMID   22033437.
  13. ↑ Honeycutt, James M.; Edwards, Renee; Zagacki, Kenneth S. (September 1989). "Using Imagined Interaction Features to Predict Measures of Self-Awareness: Loneliness, Locus of Control, Self-Dominance, and Emotional Intensity". Imagination, Cognition and Personality. 9 (1): 17–31. doi:10.2190/02L8-1GMP-JV5C-JQ7X. ISSN   0276-2366.
  14. ↑ Honeycutt, James M.; Keaton, Shaughan A. (September 2012). "Imagined Interactions and Personality Preferences as Predictors of Relationship Quality". Imagination, Cognition and Personality. 32 (1): 3–21. doi:10.2190/IC.32.1.b. ISSN   0276-2366.
  15. ↑ Poerio, Giulia L.; Totterdell, Peter; Emerson, Lisa-Marie; Miles, Eleanor (May 2015). "Love is the triumph of the imagination: Daydreams about significant others are associated with increased happiness, love and connection". Consciousness and Cognition. 33: 135–144. doi:10.1016/j.concog.2014.12.011. hdl: 10072/352183 . ISSN   1053-8100. PMID   25584779.
  16. ↑ Raichle, M. E.; MacLeod, A. M.; Snyder, A. Z.; Powers, W. J.; Gusnard, D. A.; Shulman, G. L. (2001-01-16). "A default mode of brain function". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 98 (2): 676–682. doi: 10.1073/pnas.98.2.676 . ISSN   0027-8424. PMC   14647 . PMID   11209064.
  17. 1 2 3 4 Shrimpton, Daisy; McGann, Deborah; Riby, Leigh M. (2017-11-30). "Daydream Believer: Rumination, Self-Reflection and the Temporal Focus of Mind Wandering Content". Europe's Journal of Psychology. 13 (4): 794–809. doi:10.5964/ejop.v13i4.1425. ISSN   1841-0413. PMC   5763464 . PMID   29358989.
  18. 1 2 3 4 Barron, Evelyn; Riby, Leigh M.; Greer, Joanna; Smallwood, Jonathan (2011-05-01). "Absorbed in Thought: The Effect of Mind Wandering on the Processing of Relevant and Irrelevant Events". Psychological Science. 22 (5): 596–601. doi:10.1177/0956797611404083. ISSN   0956-7976. PMID   21460338. S2CID   9341870.
  19. 1 2 Smallwood, Jonathan; Davies, John B.; Heim, Derek; Finnigan, Frances; Sudberry, Megan; O'Connor, Rory; Obonsawin, Marc (2004-12-01). "Subjective experience and the attentional lapse: Task engagement and disengagement during sustained attention". Consciousness and Cognition. 13 (4): 657–690. doi:10.1016/j.concog.2004.06.003. ISSN   1053-8100. PMID   15522626. S2CID   2514220.
  20. ↑ Strachey, J. (1953). The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, Volume V (1900–1901): The Interpretation of Dreams (Second Part) and On Dreams. London: The Hogarth Press and the Institute of Psycho-analysis. p. 492.
  21. ↑ Rocca, R. E. (September 1981). "[Directed daydreaming of Robert Desoille]". Acta Psiquiatrica y Psicologica de America Latina. 27 (4–5): 295–303. ISSN   0001-6896. PMID   7348086.
  22. ↑ Lavender, Anna; Watkins, Edward (2004). "Rumination and future thinking in depression". British Journal of Clinical Psychology. 43 (2): 129–142. doi: 10.1348/014466504323088015 . ISSN   2044-8260. PMID   15169614.
  23. 1 2 Klinger, Eric (October 1987). Psychology Today .
  24. ↑ (registration required)
  25. ↑ (registration required)
  26. 1 2 Immordino-Yang, Mary Helen; Christodoulou, Joanna A.; Singh, Vanessa (July 2012). "Rest Is Not Idleness: Implications of the Brain's Default Mode for Human Development and Education". Perspectives on Psychological Science: A Journal of the Association for Psychological Science. 7 (4): 352–364. doi:10.1177/1745691612447308. ISSN   1745-6916. PMID   26168472. S2CID   11957498.
  27. ↑ Freud, S. (1908). Creative writers and day dreaming. In P. E. Vernon (Ed.), Creativity). England: Penguin Books.
  28. ↑ Soffer-Dudek, Nirit; Somer, Eli (2018). "Trapped in a Daydream: Daily Elevations in Maladaptive Daydreaming Are Associated With Daily Psychopathological Symptoms". Frontiers in Psychiatry. 9: 194. doi: 10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00194 . ISSN   1664-0640. PMC   5962718 . PMID   29867613.
  29. ↑ Somer, Eli; Soffer-Dudek, Nirit; Ross, Colin A. (July 2017). "The Comorbidity of Daydreaming Disorder (Maladaptive Daydreaming)". Journal of Nervous & Mental Disease. 205 (7): 525–530. doi:10.1097/NMD.0000000000000685. ISSN   1539-736X. PMID   28598955.
  30. ↑ Smallwood, Jonathan (May 2013). "Distinguishing how from why the mind wanders: A process–occurrence framework for self-generated mental activity". Psychological Bulletin. 139 (3): 519–535. doi:10.1037/a0030010. ISSN   1939-1455. PMID   23607430.
  31. ↑ Poerio, Giulia Lara; Smallwood, Jonathan (November 2016). "Daydreaming to navigate the social world: What we know, what we don't know, and why it matters". Social and Personality Psychology Compass. 10 (11): 605–618. doi:10.1111/spc3.12288. ISSN   1751-9004.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.