Diptericin

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Diptericin
Pterraenovae.jpg
The blowfly Phormia terranova , in which Diptericin was first isolated
Identifiers
SymbolDiptericin, Dpt
InterPro IPR040428

Diptericin is a 9 kDa antimicrobial peptide (AMP) of flies first isolated from the blowfly Phormia terranova . [1] It is primarily active against Gram-negative bacteria, disrupting bacterial membrane integrity. The structure of this protein includes a proline-rich domain with similarities to the AMPs drosocin, pyrrhocoricin, and abaecin, and a glycine-rich domain with similarity to attacin. [2] Diptericin is an iconic readout of immune system activity in flies, used ubiquitously in studies of Drosophila immunity. [3] Diptericin is named after the insect order Diptera.

Contents

Structure and function

Diptericins are found throughout Diptera, [4] but are most extensively characterized in Drosophila fruit flies. The mature structures of diptericins are unknown, though previous efforts to synthesize Diptericin have suggested Diptericin in Protophormia terraenovae is one linear peptide. Yet Drosophila melanogaster's Diptericin B peptide is likely cleaved into two separate peptides. Synthesis of Diptericin in vitro found activity of the full-length peptide, but independently synthesizing the two peptides and mixing them does not recapitulate Diptericin activity. [2] [5] Diptericin A activity is strongly tied to residues in the glycine-rich domain.

Diptericin as a model for understanding the specificity of host-pathogen interactions

A polymorphism at a single residue in the diptericin glycine-rich domain drastically affects its activity against the Gram-negative bacterium Providencia rettgeri . [6] Flies with a Diptericin A gene encoding a serine allele survive infection significantly more than flies with an arginine allele. It is unclear how frequently such polymorphisms may dictate host-pathogen interactions, but there is evidence of widespread balancing selection that diptericin is not the only AMP with such polymorphisms. [7] [8] This close association between diptericin and P. rettgeri is further supported by genetic approaches that show that diptericin is the only antimicrobial peptide of the Drosophila immune response that affects resistance to P. rettgeri. [9]

The fruit fly Diptericin gene "Diptericin B" has a unique structure that has been derived independently in both Tephritidae and Drosophila fruit flies. This represents convergent evolution of an antimicrobial peptide towards a common structure in two separate fruit-feeding lineages. This convergent evolution is driven by presence of Acetobacter bacteria in fruit-feeding ecologies. [10] Absence of Acetobacter in other ecologies has led to subsequent loss of Diptericin B. [10] [11] Diptericin B loss is also convergent among lineages feeding on mushrooms or plants, including the mushroom-feeding fruit flies Leucophenga varia , Drosophila guttifera and Drosophila testacea , and plant-feeding Scaptomyza flies. [10]

These observations are part of a growing body of evidence that antimicrobial peptides can have intimate associations with microbes, and perhaps host ecology, in contrast to the previous philosophy that these peptides act in generalist and redundant fashions. [7] [11] [12] [13]

Functions beyond antimicrobial activity

References

  1. Dimarcq JL, Keppi E, Dunbar B, Lambert J, Reichhart JM, Hoffmann D, Rankine SM, Fothergill JE, Hoffmann JA (January 1988). "Insect immunity. Purification and characterization of a family of novel inducible antibacterial proteins from immunized larvae of the dipteran Phormia terranovae and complete amino-acid sequence of the predominant member, diptericin A". European Journal of Biochemistry. 171 (1–2): 17–22. doi: 10.1111/j.1432-1033.1988.tb13752.x . PMID   3276515.
  2. 1 2 Cudic M, Bulet P, Hoffmann R, Craik DJ, Otvos L (December 1999). "Chemical synthesis, antibacterial activity and conformation of diptericin, an 82-mer peptide originally isolated from insects". European Journal of Biochemistry. 266 (2): 549–58. doi: 10.1046/j.1432-1327.1999.00894.x . PMID   10561597.
  3. Lemaitre B, Hoffmann J (17 February 2019). "The host defense of Drosophila melanogaster". Annual Review of Immunology. 25: 697–743. doi:10.1146/annurev.immunol.25.022106.141615. PMID   17201680.
  4. Hanson MA, Hamilton PT, Perlman SJ (October 2016). "Immune genes and divergent antimicrobial peptides in flies of the subgenus Drosophila". BMC Evolutionary Biology. 16 (1): 228. Bibcode:2016BMCEE..16..228H. doi: 10.1186/s12862-016-0805-y . PMC   5078906 . PMID   27776480.
  5. Hedengren M, Borge K, Hultmark D (2000-12-20). "Expression and Evolution of the Drosophila Attacin/Diptericin Gene Family". Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications. 279 (2): 574–581. doi:10.1006/bbrc.2000.3988. ISSN   0006-291X. PMID   11118328.
  6. Unckless RL, Howick VM, Lazzaro BP (January 2016). "Convergent Balancing Selection on an Antimicrobial Peptide in Drosophila". Current Biology. 26 (2): 257–262. Bibcode:2016CBio...26..257U. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2015.11.063. PMC   4729654 . PMID   26776733.
  7. 1 2 Unckless RL, Lazzaro BP (May 2016). "The potential for adaptive maintenance of diversity in insect antimicrobial peptides". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences. 371 (1695): 20150291. doi:10.1098/rstb.2015.0291. PMC   4874389 . PMID   27160594.
  8. Myers AN, Lawhon SD, Diesel AB, Bradley CW, Rodrigues Hoffmann A, Murphy WJ, 99 Lives Cat Genome Consortium (2022-02-14). Clark LA (ed.). "An ancient haplotype containing antimicrobial peptide gene variants is associated with severe fungal skin disease in Persian cats". PLOS Genetics. 18 (2): e1010062. doi: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1010062 . ISSN   1553-7404. PMC   8880935 . PMID   35157719.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
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  16. Cao Y, Chtarbanova S, Petersen AJ, Ganetzky B (May 2013). "Dnr1 mutations cause neurodegeneration in Drosophila by activating the innate immune response in the brain". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 110 (19): E1752-60. Bibcode:2013PNAS..110E1752C. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1306220110 . PMC   3651420 . PMID   23613578.
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