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The Early Pandyas were one of the dynasties that ruled the ancient Tamil country from the pre-Christian era to about 200 AD. The Sangam works such as Mathuraikkanci, Netunalvatai and the Purananuru collection give a lot of information about the life and habits of the people during this age.
The Tamil society during the early Pandyan age had several class distinctions among the people, which were different from the Vedic classification of Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. [1] The highest class below the king, among the Tamils, was the Arivar or the sages. They were the ascetics that renounced materialism and mostly lived outside the cities. Next in rank were the Ulavar or the farmers. Following the Ulavar were the Poruppan or the armed warriors, then comes Aayar or shepherds, then comes Vedduvar or hunters, followed by artisans such as goldsmiths, blacksmiths etc., then the Valayar or fishermen and finally the Pulayar or the scavengers. [1] The higher classes enjoyed more privileges than the lower classes - for example, when the higher classes passed in the streets, the lower classes made way for them. The Pulayan, for example, bowed in supplication if he met a nobleman. The class distinctions were quite conspicuous in many aspects of life - the dress worn by the people, the way they groomed themselves and the kind of food they subsisted on were all different from one class to another. In spite of such class-based social inequalities, there was no slavery in the society. [2]
There were several occupational groups among the people, like washermen, carpenters, blacksmiths, sculptors, goldsmiths, tailors, jewelers, potters, musicians, priests, oilmongers, wine sellers, prostitutes, actresses and cobblers. Each occupational group lived in its own locality called a Cheri - an arrangement that was made to locate each group without any difficulty, which may have led to the caste system eventually. [3]
There was legal and social inequality between the sexes. Women had no property rights, and in general, were subordinate to men. [4] However, women mixed freely in the business and amusements of social life. In towns and cities, women of lower classes were employed as hawkers, vendors, shopkeepers or servants in rich households and in the villages, they worked in the fields and gardens along with men and shared their hardships. The ladies of the higher classes were more confined to their homes, but they were not secluded from society. On festive occasions they joined processions and went out to invite their friends and relations. Owing to the freedom enjoyed by women, it was possible for young people to court each other before marriage. [5] However, the plight of a widow was miserable – they were considered inauspicious and had to live life according to very strict rules. They were prohibited from decorating themselves or participating in any form of amusement. The practice of Sati was also prevalent in ancient Tamil country and was known as tippaydal. [6] When the Pandyan king Pudappandiyan died, his queen Perungopendu killed herself by ascending the funeral pyre of the king. [7] [8] Women were exposed to education, a fact testified by the presence of at least thirty women poets in the Sangam works, including Avvaiyar, Mudatamakkanniar, Kaakkaippaadiniyaar, Naachchellayaar, Naagaiyaar, Nanmullaiyaar, Ponmudiyaar, Ilaveyiniyaar and Nappasaliyaar. [9]
A variety of clothing was used by people during this age, including those made of pure cotton and silk. [10] People living in hilly and deserted areas wore dresses made of foliage and flowers. Sheaths of grassy weeds (Korai) were used for making dress by the hill and forest area people. Skins of animals and barks of trees were also used. Men of the poorer classes wore only one piece of cloth around the waist. Among the higher classes, men wore two pieces: one around the waist and the other, the upper cloth, thrown over the shoulders. [11] Both men and women sported long tresses of hair. Women plaited their hair while they were unmarried and after marriage, decorated their hair in five different ways – Kulal, Alagam, Kondai (elderly women tying up their hair), Paniccai (dressing hair in shape of plantain flower) and Tuncai. Widows were not permitted to have tresses of hair. Women also applied a cream of scented clay on their hair for the fragrance and the cooling effect. Women, except widows, wore colorful tilakam on their foreheads and used collyrium to beautify their eyelashes and brows. [12]
The diet was plain, rice being the staple cereal, with maize, millet, milk, butter and honey being in common use. [13] The Paratavar (fisherman) ate fish as their main food, whereas people in the Mullai regions used dairy products heavily. Kurinji people ate meat obtained by hunting. Rice flakes were eaten with milk, honey, ghee and jaggery. pepper, tamarind and salt were used during cooking. Ghee was used by rich people. Vegetables and fruits were part of their meals. Meat eating was common - people ate flesh of rams, deer, hare, fowl, porcupines, pigs and boar, fresh and dried fish. [14]
The kind of housing was determined by the type of geography of the land and the economic status of the occupants. The Mullai and Marutam people lived in comfortable and bigger houses compared to that of the Kurinji and Neital people who lived in huts since they had to live near hilly regions and the seashore respectively. [15] The rich built their houses with tiled roofs and walls made of burnt bricks and mud, while the poor built their huts with mud and thatched it with grass, coconut leaves or palmyra palm leaves. Both in the huts and houses, the flooring was smeared with cowdung. The affluent had houses with porticoes, many storeys, open terraces and furnished their houses well. The inner walls of their houses were decorated with flowers and paintings, with cottages to protect them from the wind. Cots were in common use – the rich had luxurious beds decked with swan's feathers and flowers, while the common people had beds woven with the straw of maize and the poorest people used beds made of grass or hay. [11]
The Sangam poems Mathuraikkanci and Netunalvatai give a vivid description of the city of Madurai and the king's palace, under the rule of the Early Pandyas. The main streets were long and broad, with most buildings on either side of them being lofty mansions with upper stories furnished with many windows. A flag was hoisted at every temple and after each victory of the king, gorgeous colors were unfurled in the temples, giving the city a festive look. When the troops returned from successful missions, they brought with them war booty such as elephants, horses, cattle and beautifully carved fortress gates. Feudatory chiefs followed with their tributes to the king, while conch shells were blown to warn pedestrians off the road. The king's palace was built lavishly, surrounded by spacious lawns and enclosed within high walls. The gateways to the palace were massive, rivetted with iron and provided with large bolts and bars. The king ran his business seated from an audience hall in the presence of his council of ministers, military chiefs and other officers. [16]
The Sangam poems also give a detailed account of the day-to-day routine of the inhabitants of Madurai during this period: Long before dawn, musicians tuned their lutes and practiced upon them, pastry cooks cleaned the floors of their shops and toddy sellers opened their taverns for early customers. Minstrels went around singing their morning blessings. At sunrise, conch shells boomed and big drums resounded in temples, monasteries and the palace of the king. Flower-sellers and vendors of fragrant powders, arecanuts and betel leaves strolled the streets. Elderly women with tempting dainties and sweet smelling flowers went from door to door offering the articles for sale. The wealthy classes drove in chariots pulled by horses or rode on ambling steeds which were trained to special paces. In the great market, which was held in an extensive square, several articles were put up for sale such as garlands of flowers, fragrant pastes, coats with metallic belts, leather sandals, weapons, shields, carts, chariots and ornamented chariot steps. The garment shops sold clothing of various colors and patterns, made of cotton, silk or wool and were neatly arranged in rows. In the grain merchants' street, sacks of pepper and sixteen kinds of grains including paddy, millet, gram, peas and sesame seeds were heaped along the street. The jewellers, who conducted business from a separate street, sold precious articles such as diamonds, pearls, emeralds, rubies, sapphires, topaz, coral beads and varieties of gold. In the cool hours of the evening, the nobleman drove out on their chariots accompanied by attendants clad in red garments, who ran by the side of the chariots. The ladies appeared on the high terraces of their mansions, wearing ankle rings and golden bracelets with the fragrances from their perfumes spreading through the streets. The merchants of perishable articles move about the streets disposing of unsold merchandise. Hotels and restaurants are crowded with visitors who feast upon the meals served. A flourish of music from trumpets and other instruments summoned people to the evening worship, following which families proceededed to their places of worship to offer prayers. As the sun set, lamps were lit in each house. Youths, drunken soldiers and harlots decked with jewels and flowers started walking the streets. During festival season, processions of the deities were common, accompanied by dancing and loud music. By nightfall, petty traders closed up their shops and some of them went to sleep outside their stalls. Night guards started patrolling the streets, with bows and arrows, even during dark and rainy nights. [17]
Cilappatikāram, also referred to as Silappathikaram or Silappatikaram, is the earliest Tamil epic. It is a poem of 5,730 lines in almost entirely akaval (aciriyam) meter. The epic is a tragic love story of an ordinary couple, Kannaki and her husband Kovalan. The Cilappatikaram has more ancient roots in the Tamil bardic tradition, as Kannaki and other characters of the story are mentioned or alluded to in the Sangam literature such as in the Naṟṟiṇai and later texts such as the Kovalam Katai. It is attributed to a prince-turned-monk Iḷaṅkō Aṭikaḷ, and was probably composed in the 2nd century CE.
The Pandyan dynasty, also referred to as the Pandyas of Madurai, was an ancient Tamil dynasty of South India, and among the four great kingdoms of Tamilakam, the other three being the Pallavas, the Cholas and the Cheras. Existing since at least the 4th to 3rd centuries BCE, the dynasty passed through two periods of imperial dominance, the 6th to 10th centuries CE, and under the 'Later Pandyas'. Under Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan I and Maravarman Kulasekara Pandyan I, the Pandyas ruled extensive territories including regions of present-day South India and northern Sri Lanka through vassal states subject to Madurai.
Pandya Nadu or Pandi Nadu is a geographical region comprising the southern part of the present day state of Tamil Nadu. The region is bounded on its West by the Venad/Ay Nadu, Northeast by the Chola Nadu and Northwest by the Kongu Nadu. It comprises the present-day districts of Madurai, Theni, Sivaganga, Ramanathapuram, Virudhunagar, Tirunelveli, Tenkasi, Thoothukudi, Kanniyakumari, parts of Pudukkottai and Dindigul.
Tamilakam was the geographical region inhabited by the ancient Tamil people, covering the southernmost region of the Indian subcontinent. Tamilakam covered today's Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Puducherry, Lakshadweep and southern parts of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. Traditional accounts and the Tolkāppiyam referred to these territories as a single cultural area, where Tamil was the natural language and permeated the culture of all its inhabitants. The ancient Tamil country was divided into kingdoms. The best known among them were the Cheras, Cholas, Pandyans and Pallavas. During the Sangam period, Tamil culture began to spread outside Tamilakam. Ancient Tamil settlements were also established in Sri Lanka and the Maldives (Giravarus), prior to the migration of Prakrit speakers.
Sholavandan is a panchayat town in Madurai district in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. It is located on the left bank of the Vaigai River, sixteen miles north west of Madurai. It is one of 12 "town- panchayats" of Madurai district.
Maduraikanchi, is an ancient Tamil poem in the Sangam literature. It is a didactic poem and its title connotes the "poetic counsel addressed to the king of Madurai". Composed by Mankuti Marutanar – probably the chief court poet of the Pandya king Nedunjeliyan II, the Maduraikkāñci is the sixth poem in the Pattuppāṭṭu anthology. The poem is generally dated to the late classical period.
Veera Ballala III was the last great king of the Hoysala Empire. During his rule, the northern and southern branches of the Hoysala empire were consolidated and administered from Halebidu. During his rule, he fought numerous wars with the Yadavas of Devagiri, the Pandyan Dynasty of Madurai and other minor dynasties of South India. But it was his conflict with the invading forces of Alauddin Khalji, and later those of Muhammad bin Tughluq, the Sultan of Delhi, that would alter the course of history of South India. For his courage and fortitude, the historians Suryanath Kamath, Chopra, Ravindran and Subrahmanian have called him a "great ruler". With his death in c. 1343, South India saw the rise of a new Hindu empire, the Vijayanagara Empire. In the words of the historian Sen "the Hoysalas were the greatest among those who claim to be the makers of modern Mysore". Harihara I and Bukka Raya I, the brothers who founded the Vijayanagara Empire had served the king in a military capacity.
The Early Pandyas of the Sangam period were one of the three main kingdoms of the Tamilakam, the other two being the Cholas, and Cheras Dynasty. As with many other kingdoms around this period, most of the information about the Early Pandyas come to modern historians mainly through literary sources and some epigraphic, archaeological and numismatic evidence. The capital of the Early Pandyan kingdom was initially Korkai, Thoothukudi and was later moved to Koodal during the reign of Nedunjeliyan I.
The Early Pandyas were one of the dynasties that ruled the ancient Tamil country from the pre-Christian era to about 200 CE. Most of the information about the administration and government under the early Pandyas comes to use through Sangam literature.
Hinduism, in particular Vaishnavism and Shaivism, was the predominant religion in ancient Tamilakam. The Sangam period in Tamilakam was characterized by the coexistence of many denominations and religions: Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Ajivika and later joined by Buddhism and Jainism alongside the folk religion of the Tamil people. The monarchs of the time practiced religious tolerance and openly encouraged religious discussions and invited teachers of every sect to the public halls to preach their doctrines. Hinduism, Jainism, and Buddhism were the three major religions that prevailed in the Tamil region predating the Common Era, as early as the Sangam period.
The economy of the ancient Tamil country describes the ancient economy of a region in southern India that mostly covers the present-day states of Tamil Nadu and Kerala. The main economic activities were agriculture, weaving, pearl fishery, manufacturing and construction. Paddy was the most important crop; it was the staple cereal and served as a medium of exchange for inland trade. Pepper, millets, grams and sugarcane were other commonly grown crops. Madurai and Urayur were important centers for the textile industry; Korkai was the center of the pearl trade. Industrial activity flourished.
During the Sangam age, industrial activity was considered ancillary to agriculture and was mostly domestic, not factory-based. Simple workshops where the blacksmith made the wheel or the carpenter his wooden wares could be called factories of a sort. Weaving, pearl fishing, smithy and ship building were some of the prominent industries of the ancient Tamil country. Cotton and silk fabrics from Madurai and Urayur were in great demand; the textiles from these regions were well known for their high quality. Korkai was the center of pearl trade and produced pearls that were sought after not only in Tamilakam, but in the kingdoms of north India and Rome. Smithy was an essential industry, because the blacksmith manufactured many of the tools and objects used in daily life. The flourishing overseas trade was supported by the shipbuilding industry that produced a variety of ocean and river craft. There were several ancillary industries such as carpentry, fishing, salt manufacture and construction that supported the trade and economic activity of this age.
There are literary, archaeological, epigraphic and numismatic sources of ancient Tamil history. The foremost among these sources is the Sangam literature, generally dated to 5th century BCE to 3rd century CE. The poems in Sangam literature contain vivid descriptions of the different aspects of life and society in Tamilakam during this age; scholars agree that, for the most part, these are reliable accounts. Greek and Roman literature, around the dawn of the Christian era, give details of the maritime trade between Tamilakam and the Roman empire, including the names and locations of many ports on both coasts of the Tamil country.
Kadungon was a Pandya king who revived the Pandya rule in South India in the 6th century CE. Along with the Pallava king Simhavishnu, he is credited with ending the Kalabhra rule, marking the beginning of a new era in the Tamil speaking region.
Villavar was a tribe of hunters lived in Tamilakam, the southern part of ancient India. The word villavar derives from the Tamil word for bow (vil). The villavars lived in hill tracts and forests. Chera kings used the title villavan Kulasekhara Alwar the founder of the later Chera dynasty called himself "Villavar Kon", king of Villavars, in a Tamil work written by him known as Perumal Thirumozhi.
Kapilar or Kabilar was the most prolific Tamil poet of the Sangam period. He alone contributed some 206 poems, or a little less than 10% of the entire Sangam-era classical corpus by 473 ancient poets. Held in high regard by other poets of the Sangam era, as well as the post-Sangam era, he is variously dated to have lived between c. 50–125 CE, or 140–200 CE.
Madurai is a major city in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu It is the administrative headquarters of Madurai District and a popular Hindu pilgrimage centre.
Maravarman Avanisulamani (Tamil: அவனி சூளாமணி) was a Pandya ruler of early historic south India. He was the son and successor of Kadungon, who revived the Pandya dynastic power after the Kalabhra interregnum. Not much information is available about either of these kings.
Jayantavarman, known in Tamil as Seliyan Sendan,(Tamil:செழியன் சேந்தன்) was a Pandya ruler of early historic south India. He is best known for extending the Pandya rule to the Chera country (Kerala). He was succeeded by his son Maravarman Arikesari Parankusan.
The Pandyan empire is believed to have first emerged circa 600 BC and was one of the leading Tamil dynasties of Southern India. There were various forms of art and many architectural communities within the empire, and their work was sold to overseas markets. Rock cutting and structural temples are examples of these, playing a significant role in Pandyan culture. The rock carvings typically depicted religious figures, floral motifs and animals and were made to surround temples and shrines.
