Educational inequality in southeast Michigan

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Educational inequality has existed in the Southeast Michigan area of the United States since the birth of institutional, urban schooling in the US. Inequality between lower and higher class districts have perpetuated divisions in educational opportunities and outcomes between Michigan communities, especially areas in and around Detroit, the state's largest city. According to a report by the Kerner Commission from 1967, "spending per pupil in Detroit suburbs was 27% greater than in the city and that spending since World War II had risen more in the suburbs than in the city. (Kerner Report 1968, 435)." [1] More recently, the economic decline of Detroit culminating in the 2013 Detroit bankruptcy has aggravated the educational tensions.

Contents

Since it is more common for people of color to be part of the less-affluent communities with fewer educational resources, the phenomenon has also perpetuated opportunity differences between races. The Brown v. Board of Education case of 1954, which banned racial segregation in public schools, did not end this form of educational inequality. The gaps in educational inequality and acquirement negatively affect residents' development into adulthood, specifically when it comes to employment between whites and blacks. According to a study, "In 2014, employed adult black men in metropolitan Detroit earned 56% as much as their white counterparts. In 2014, employed African American women earned 75% as much as white women. Racial differences in education account for a share of the racial gap in earnings." [1]

Background: The impact of Detroit's collapse

Previously home to the Ford Motor Industry, Detroit gained recognition as the country's pinnacle of a thriving domestic labor markets. In its peak, between 1900 and 1950, Detroit's population increased exponentially, encouraging healthy economy and overall quality of life. In current times, "Detroit ranks seventy-third in median income and dead last in the value of its owner-occupied houses. It is the only city in the nation where single parents head the majority of families. And Detroit is more segregated than any other major metropolitan area," [2] according to the Michigan Historical Review. Being that Detroit was once the bustling capital, the hub of south-eastern Michigan economy, the fall of Detroit meant trouble for surrounding areas. Worsened economy meant compromised spending in school systems, especially those that were already less-funded in comparison to more affluent districts. Scholars explain that, "where people live impacts their access to opportunities. Moreover, the geographic distribution of opportunity is particularly important for children because it impacts their schooling experiences." [3] Being that students in poorer communities were those of color, this increased the gap between educational opportunities for white and children of color in Michigan. Black students in particular were left behind when it came to their predominantly African American school. districts.

Detroit’s schools, in the past, enrolled the majority of the state’s African American children. Those schools were viewed as so under-performing and poorly run that the state took them over in 1999. Then, in 2008, after many protested, the schools were returned to local control. Problems persisted, however, and in 2011 the state of Michigan took over again. The takeover did not improve achievement levels and generated new debts of about a half billion dollars. The state paid off those debts in 2016 and funded the creation of a new locally run school district (Gray 2016). [1] [4]

Since 2016, Betsy DeVos proposed a solution which funded privately operated schools, making them more accessible to students rather than attending "failing" public schools; "State-equalized support for all students ended the situation in which funding for a student's instruction was directly linked to the tax base of the student's district." [1] The plan encouraged more residents of color, and residents in general, to attend academically apt schools.

Impacts of race on educational inequality

Detroit became the final destination of many African Americans involved in The Great Migration, most of whom moved into predominantly black neighborhoods; this demographic change in Michigan's population affected the degree of segregation in all aspects, including education. Un-welcomed into white communities, African American families were forced to send their children to lower quality schools within their poorer districts, affecting educational opportunity significantly. In 1974, US Supreme Court case Milliken v. Bradley dealt with educational inequality and the accessibility of education to students of color among 50 school districts in Southeast Michigan. In conjunction with the changes that Brown v. Board of Education implemented in 1954, this court case sought to discuss the organized, segregated bussing by public schools which perpetuated racial inequality in educational systems. The court ruled that schools were, "not obligated to desegregate unless it had been proven that the lines were drawn with racist intent on the part of the districts." See Milliken v. Bradley. In short, very little changed since no solution was addressed to combat district segregation, not included in racist segregation but also a major roadblock in terms of educational inequality. State decisions like these influenced educational standards by normalizing segregation and continue to impact education today.

Education in Southeast Michigan

Literacy rates

Detroit public schools have high illiteracy rates and low academic performance compared to cities across the United States; "eighth graders scored lowest in math and reading in the nation." [5] According to the National Institute for Literacy, 47% (200,000) of adults in Detroit are functionally illiterate, and half of the 200,000 adults do not have a high school diploma or GED, showing that the lack of these skills learned in an academic setting is generationally embedded into different groups of society.

Mark Rosenbaum, a director of Public Counsel Opportunity Under Law, is concerned about the "mis-education" of America, claiming that the institution of public education constitutes a large range of inequality. Rosenbaum focuses on disadvantaged communities like Detroit, where not only almost half of the population are not functionally literate, but 40.3% also live in poverty. [5] Little government interaction or solutions to this issue adds to the inequality of opportunity faced by public school students in Detroit, who are unable to access the education received by children who live just outside of Detroit in Livonia, Novi, or Ann Arbor.

Teacher vacancies, poor heating and cooling infrastructure, and lack of textbooks and materials are environmental features that contribute to the inequality of opportunity that exists in Detroit public schools, relating to low levels of academic achievement. This violates the constitutional rights of attending students.[ dubious – discuss ] Public counsel and educational policy makers avoid resolving this matter as part of litigation processes, arguing that the state can't be held responsible for illiteracy. [6]

Policy

The state of Michigan passed a law to allow teachers without proper credentials to teach in classrooms; as a result, Detroit public schools have seen an increase in teachers who hold a bachelor's degree, but no certifications related to teaching. [5]

Racial and socioeconomic inequalities that have been worsened by educational policy changes in the 21st century are not limited to any one intersection of identities. The Latino community in Detroit has voiced their concerns in response to the impacts of changes made to standardized testing and teacher assessments in public schools. These changes were made by the Obama administration in an attempt to hold schools, teachers, and students more accountable in hope of improving achievement scores.

70% of the students who identify as Latino are also defined as economically disadvantaged, and testing scores in 2012 show rates of less than 30% proficiency in all subjects tested, a common problem in Detroit public schools. Resistance efforts made by the youth of these communities communicate that policy reforms have created the need for more police enforcement, caused overcrowding, and under-resourced classrooms in certain schools, despite their intentions. Protests and walk-outs are some forms of backlash that students have used to demonstrate their frustrations in an attempt to communicate that the policies that may work for communities with different hardships and resources do not work for them. [7]

School funding

In Michigan, Proposal A was approved in 1994. It drastically changed funding method for public education and led to lower property taxes, reducing inequalities in per-pupil funding across local districts. [8] [9]

However, there are different effects among regions. In the south and west of the state, a greater percentage of local funding was supported by property tax revenues in 1989-90 than 2002–03. In addition, a smaller percentage of the total revenue was supported by the states, while that by deferral sources increased. [9] After Proposal A was passed, less education revenue came from local sources such as local property taxes, while more came from foundation allowances from the state. This change in the sources of revenue consequently leveled the revenue across districts. [10]

The number of students in public schools declined because families tried to search for jobs outside of the state just after the Great Recession. [10] This outflow of workers and recession in Michigan decreased tax revenues that financially support the public schools. [10] : 5  This downward trend has dramatically changed since 2009, and unemployment rates in Southeastern Michigan have improved from 16% in 2008 to less than 5% in 2017. [11] This economic recovery contributed to an increase in tax revenues, and therefore it enhanced the budget for education in Michigan.

Inequality in funding

In Michigan, the inequality in per-pupil based funding has decreased after Proposal A's passage. [9] : 23  Before Proposal A was approved, 80% of Michigan school operating funds came from local property taxes. This funding structure was the main cause of unequal funding, because property values differed across local districts. After Proposal A passed, new funding sources such as state income taxes, sales taxes, and education property taxes created another $11 billion annual fund for public school districts, which decreased the disparities in funding across local districts. [10] : 12  As a result, the vast majority of schools were funded within a significantly narrower range in 2009. According to the House Fiscal Agency, 80% of all districts (including charter public schools) receive between $7,100 and $7,400 per student through the foundation allowance formula; 94% fell between $7,100 and $8,500 in 2010. [12] However, if the funding per pupil in each district is considered, there is a significant difference in Southeast Michigan districts. The table below shows that the revenue per pupil in Branch was more than three times higher than that of Wayne in 2005–06. [9] : 83 

Per-pupil funding, by school district
School districtGeneral fundSpecial education fund Vocational education fund Cooperative education fundTotalRank
Branch531.991533.78925.9103011.681
Calhoun253.141260.01285.0474.341872.538
Hillsdale265.251278.46193.0201736.739
Huron271.331668.85544.2119.42603.782
Jackson324.701453.5242002198.234
Lenawee390.91381.46612.7702385.133
Lewis Cass454.91918.640539.731913.287
Livingston241.591058.57001300.1613
Macomb184.531054.74001239.2715
Monroe481.741446.83001928.576
Oakland152.121063.92227.801433.8412
St. Clair332.92925.89247.7401506.5511
St. Joseph179.08825.18238.7301242.9914
Van Buren360.71149.12515.4202022.245
Washtenaw107.121481.58001588.710
Wayne75.78834.7020.51930.9916

Impact on college education gap

Educational inequality presents itself in the districts of Southeast Michigan as some provide exceptional schooling and opportunities while the others fall short; as a result, children in these less fortunate districts have been falling behind. According to Michigan Radio (NPR), [13] lower-end schools receive less funding, less qualified teachers, and worse resources and infrastructure. Furthermore, turnover rates in less fortunate schools remain at an all-time high, with principals reporting the need to replace over 60% of her[ who? ] teachers each year. Thus resulting in either lacking numbers of teachers or less qualified teachers. These inferior educational environments are hindering the children's ability to be properly prepared to succeed in high school and continue on to college. As school districts are determined by geographical borders, the lower quality schools reside in the poorer neighborhoods. [14] That being said, research shows that economically integrated schools will improve all children's success, creating greater opportunities to attain a college degree in the future. The Detroit Free Press [15] claimed that the college graduation gap for low income students has reached an all-time high. Therefore, less fortunate children who attend schools in worse school districts have less of a chance to graduate college - thus significantly limiting their future opportunities. According to a database of the Detroit Free Press, [16] various districts in Michigan have a college enrollment rate of 90%, while others have a college enrollment rate of less than 5%. Therefore, of the thousands of children enrolled in less qualified schools, only a handful even enroll in college, with even fewer actually finishing college. As a result, the cycle of poverty and these unfortunate neighborhoods continue.

The Detroit Public Community Schools and the charter system

Detroit Public Community School district is the site of the most significant federal school desegregation cases in U.S. history. [17] The Supreme Court decision essentially reinforced racialized educational opportunities between suburban district's white students and black students in DPS. [18] The Detroit Public Community School District replaced the prior Detroit Public Schools in 2016. Furthermore, Detroit's first school board in seven years was publicly seated in early 2017. Prior to this, the district had been under a plethora of government appointed emergency managers. [19] Moody's investors service released a report in 2018 stating that “the Detroit Public School Community District (DPSCD) could also become a major drag on revitalization beyond downtown. Two years following a state rescue package, the district does not have the ability to address its significant capital needs.” [20]

A charter school in Michigan is a state-supported public school operating under a contract issued by an authorizing body. [21] Over half of the students in Detroit attend charter schools, thus, Detroit has the most for-profit charter schools in the nation. In 1994 charter schools first came into Detroit. Charter schools are held to the same standard for core curriculum as other public schools. Furthermore, “Charter school board members are public officials that have sworn a constitutional oath of office in Michigan,” according to the Michigan Department of Education. Charter schools shape the education market that is distinguished by surpassed capacity, policy-enabled choice across districts, and also with a need to fill seats or close instead. [22] The Education Trust-Midwest's 2016 report on Michigan's charter sector states that 70% of Michigan's charters are composed of low-income minority students and they also sit at the bottom hap of the state's ranking. [23]

Socioeconomic status

Research indicates that children from low socioeconomic households and school districts develop academic skills and some life skills more slowly than children from higher socioeconomic groups, examples being language, memory, emotional processing, and even health in adulthood. [24] This idea is also supported by the Summer Learning Gap phenomenon, [25] represented in a graph that shows the achievement gap that grows between high and low income students after years in school. This finding has allowed researchers to make significant connections between schooling and income status: home life during the summer is a large part of educational inequality (family environment), school does not reduce inequality in learning, but also keeps it from growing.

Inequalities in school systems that stem from socioeconomic status are shown in Southeastern Michigan, and specifically in Wayne County (Detroit). As of 2016, Detroit's poverty rate was 35.7%, with a median household income of just over $28,000. [26] Wayne County has the highest school dropout rate in Michigan, at 15%, which is also higher than the dropout rate in the United States in general, 13%. [27] In Detroit, “10% of students are classified as homeless and 65% of our students qualified for free and reduced lunch in the 2016-17 school year.” [26] When a student is living in poverty and has to focus on how to meet the most basic needs of life, it is nearly impossible to pay attention in school, let alone achieve high success in their classes. Thus, places with children from lower socioeconomic status homes will be impacted differently in school by standardization methods compared to places with students from wealthier homes.

Segregation in the Southeast areas of Michigan is very prevalent is the education system. In the city of Detroit, majority of the residents in the suburb area are predominantly white, while in the actual city majority of the residents are Black. This segregation creates lack of diversity in the schools in this area. Not only does this cause racial differences is these different districts, but also affects the quality of the school itself. Most of the city's wealth lies within the suburb areas in the cities, or the “white” neighborhoods. This allows for the wealthier districts to put more money into their schools, furthering the education of their students while other, less privileged schools get left behind. In the early 2000s Detroit lost at least 25% of their population, basically causing the economic downfall of the city while the “white neighborhoods” were still thriving. This left behind business owners that had no more customers, resulting in failed business and even more abandoned buildings on top of the buildings from people leaving their homes. This is just an example of what's happening in many different areas. [28]

Community outreach programs

Blueprint 2020

Blueprint 2020 is a Detroit-based initiative focused on helping students to excel in school and have more career options afterward. The initiative has three main goals: access to harder curriculum and accelerated programs, career academies with different programs, and a college-ready student body through common core teachings and SAT prep classes. [29] The program also focuses on creating well-rounded students with experience in the arts, athletics, and drama. The Superintendent of Detroit Public Schools Community District who helped create the initiative saw the struggle and gap that was appearing in students with a low socioeconomic background, and created this "blueprint" to try and make a change to better those students' lives.

New Economy Initiative

Created for the greater Detroit area of Southeast Michigan, the New Economy Initiative (NEI) is a philanthropic program focused on helping and rebuilding the economy of the area by supporting local businesses. Partners which help funding and programming include the Michigan Economic Development Corporation through the state government in Lansing, the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor, and NextEnergy, a Detroit-based environmental organization and manager of NextEnergy Solar Fund. Since launching in 2007, the program has provided over $96.2 to small businesses and local entrepreneurs in the metro area. [30]

Wayne County, which has significantly benefited from the NEI, has a high level of socioeconomic inequality, with the highest levels of poverty, [31] but also some of the top wealthiest cities, according to some sources. [32] Approximately $12,250 (70% of money given by NEI) has gone to Wayne County, [30] with the hope of creating direct and indirect steady jobs (182 that directly went into the education sector). [30] [ citation needed ] The average annual income accredited to NEI is $44,000 for each job.[ citation needed ] There is an achievement gap between low and high income parents, and while the jobs created by NEI are not in the higher brackets of income, the creation of jobs is still significant in increasing average family income. Other scholarly pieces, such as Unequal Childhoods , a book by sociologist Annette Lareau, show the different parenting styles between low- and high-income houses.

The hope is that the NEI will help areas of all counties with less economic prosperity to close the existing wealth gap that is apparent is many of the regional public and private schools. However, some reports criticize the initiative because it does not report on the long-term health of the businesses it helps start.

Teach For America

Work done by Teach For America in the Detroit area began in 2010. Beyond participating in the classroom, it has also been involved with community based learning events for inner-city students in the metro area, including an equestrian program for teaching students about horseback riding and horse care, book donations on African-American culture, and advocating for Latino students. The Detroit headquarters' website lists the average teacher's annual take-home salary, which was about $17,500 as of 2018, [33] and the master's degree requirements to be a teacher in the program. The program is concerned that 81% of children from low income families do not graduate college by age 25. [34]

While this program, and many others, have worked to lessen inequality in the region, inequality is still evident in figures from funding, achievement scores, and social mobility.

Social mobility

According to the Equality of Opportunity Project, “Children's prospects of earning more than their parents have fallen from 90% to 50% over the past half century.” [35] It is becoming increasingly difficult for children to earn more than their parents. Each additional year corresponds to a 1% decline in the number of American children who earn more than their parents. [35] Therefore, if the level of education affects earning rates, children need to attain higher levels of education than their parents to earn similar to greater salaries than them.

Proficiency exam scores in Detroit public schools are extremely low in comparison to the rest of the county, as well as to adjacent counties. The lack of education in these areas lowers the chances of future success for local students. According to The RedPin, to achieve the "American Dream", one needs to make an income of around $42,000. [36] People obtaining less education than an associate degree have little chance of attaining the American Dream. This differs when gender comes into play. The median income for men with associate degrees is $43,871, while women with associate degrees make substantially less at $27,122. [36] These statistics reveal the severity of the gender inequality and pay gap that exist in the US. They also show that only men, and not women, with an associate degree, meet the margin for earning enough income to live the American Dream. At the next education level are surprising results. The median income for men with a bachelor's degree is $60,933, and only $40,003 for women with a bachelor's degree. Men with a bachelor's degree are able to attain the American Dream, while women with the same level of education fail to reach that income threshold. Inferring from this information, the average working woman in the United States needs to attain a higher level of education than a bachelor's degree, while the average working man only has to attain an associate degree to reach the American Dream. [36]

In pockets within Southeast Michigan, high school graduation rates fluctuate between 78% and 96%. [37] The highest high school dropout rates occur in the Detroit Public Schools Community District, and the lowest occur in Rochester Community Schools. The median household income for families living in the district of Rochester Community Schools is $80,806, [38] while the median household income for families living in the Detroit Public Schools district is $26,127. [39] The areas in Southeast Michigan with high median household incomes correspond to more high school graduates.

See also

Related Research Articles

Education reform is the name given to the goal of changing public education. The meaning and education methods have changed through debates over what content or experiences result in an educated individual or an educated society. Historically, the motivations for reform have not reflected the current needs of society. A consistent theme of reform includes the idea that large systematic changes to educational standards will produce social returns in citizens' health, wealth, and well-being.

School choice is a term for education options that allow students and families to select alternatives to public schools. It is the subject of fierce debate in various state legislatures across the United States.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Education in the United States</span>

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Social mobility</span> Mobility to move social classes

Social mobility is the movement of individuals, families, households or other categories of people within or between social strata in a society. It is a change in social status relative to one's current social location within a given society. This movement occurs between layers or tiers in an open system of social stratification. Open stratification systems are those in which at least some value is given to achieved status characteristics in a society. The movement can be in a downward or upward direction. Markers for social mobility such as education and class, are used to predict, discuss and learn more about an individual or a group's mobility in society.

The African-American middle class consists of African-Americans who have middle-class status within the American class structure. It is a societal level within the African-American community that primarily began to develop in the early 1960s, when the ongoing Civil Rights Movement led to the outlawing of de jure racial segregation. The African American middle class exists throughout the United States, particularly in the Northeast and in the South, with the largest contiguous majority black middle-class neighborhoods being in the Washington, DC suburbs in Maryland. The African American middle class is also prevalent in the Atlanta, Charlotte, Houston, Dallas, Los Angeles, New Orleans, New York, San Antonio and Chicago areas.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Economic mobility</span> Ability to improve ones economic status

Economic mobility is the ability of an individual, family or some other group to improve their economic status—usually measured in income. Economic mobility is often measured by movement between income quintiles. Economic mobility may be considered a type of social mobility, which is often measured in change in income.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Socioeconomic status</span> Economic and social measure of a persons affluence and/or influence

Socioeconomic status (SES) is an economic and sociological combined total measure of a person's work experience and of an individual's or family's access to economic resources and social position in relation to others. When analyzing a family's SES, the household income and the education and occupations of its members are examined, whereas for an individual's SES only their own attributes are assessed. Recently, research has revealed a lesser-recognized attribute of SES as perceived financial stress, as it defines the "balance between income and necessary expenses". Perceived financial stress can be tested by deciphering whether a person at the end of each month has more than enough, just enough, or not enough money or resources. However, SES is more commonly used to depict an economic difference in society as a whole.

Residential segregation is the physical separation of two or more groups into different neighborhoods—a form of segregation that "sorts population groups into various neighborhood contexts and shapes the living environment at the neighborhood level". While it has traditionally been associated with racial segregation, it generally refers to the separation of populations based on some criteria.

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The racial achievement gap in the United States refers to disparities in educational achievement between differing ethnic/racial groups. It manifests itself in a variety of ways: African-American and Hispanic students are more likely to earn lower grades, score lower on standardized tests, drop out of high school, and they are less likely to enter and complete college than whites, while whites score lower than Asian Americans.

Structural inequality has been identified as the bias that is built into the structure of organizations, institutions, governments, or social networks. Structural inequality occurs when the fabric of organizations, institutions, governments or social networks contains an embedded bias which provides advantages for some members and marginalizes or produces disadvantages for other members. This can involve property rights, status, or unequal access to health care, housing, education and other physical or financial resources or opportunities. Structural inequality is believed to be an embedded part of the culture of the United States due to the history of slavery and the subsequent suppression of equal civil rights of minority races. Structural inequality has been encouraged and maintained in the society of the United States through structured institutions such as the public school system with the goal of maintaining the existing structure of wealth, employment opportunities, and social standing of the races by keeping minority students from high academic achievement in high school and college as well as in the workforce of the country. In the attempt to equalize allocation of state funding, policymakers evaluate the elements of disparity to determine an equalization of funding throughout school districts.p.(14)

Structural inequality occurs when the fabric of organizations, institutions, governments or social networks contains an embedded cultural, linguistic, economic, religious/belief, physical or identity based bias which provides advantages for some members and marginalizes or produces disadvantages for other members. This can involve, personal agency, freedom of expression, property rights, freedom of association, religious freedom,social status, or unequal access to health care, housing, education, physical, cultural, social, religious or political belief, financial resources or other social opportunities. Structural inequality is believed to be an embedded part of all known cultural groups. The global history of slavery, serfdom, indentured servitude and other forms of coerced cultural or government mandated labour or economic exploitation that marginalizes individuals and the subsequent suppression of human rights are key factors defining structural inequality.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Socioeconomic mobility in the United States</span> Social and economic class mobility

Socioeconomic mobility in the United States refers to the upward or downward movement of Americans from one social class or economic level to another, through job changes, inheritance, marriage, connections, tax changes, innovation, illegal activities, hard work, lobbying, luck, health changes or other factors.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">School segregation in the United States</span> Racial separation in schools

School segregation in the United States was the segregation of students based on their ethnicity. While not prohibited from having schools, various minorities were barred from most schools, schools for whites. Segregation was enforced by formal legal systems in U.S. states primarily in the Southern United States, although elsewhere segregation could be informal or customary. Segregation laws were dismantled in 1954 by the U.S. Supreme Court because of the successes being attained during the Civil Rights Movement. Segregation continued longstanding exclusionary policies in much of the Southern United States after the Civil War. Jim Crow laws codified segregation. These laws were influenced by the history of slavery and discrimination in the US. Secondary schools for African Americans in the South were called training schools instead of high schools in order to appease racist whites and focused on vocational education. School integration in the United States took place at different times in different areas and often met resistance. After the ruling of Brown v. Board of Education, which banned segregated school laws, school segregation took de facto form. School segregation declined rapidly during the late 1960s and early 1970s as the government became strict on schools' plans to combat segregation more effectively as a result of Green v. County School Board of New Kent County. Voluntary segregation by income appears to have increased since 1990. Racial segregation has either increased or stayed constant since 1990, depending on which definition of segregation is used. In general, definitions based on the amount of interaction between black and white students show increased racial segregation, while definitions based on the proportion of black and white students in different schools show racial segregation remaining approximately constant.

Education inequality in China exists on multiple levels, with significant disparities occurring along gender, geographical, and ethnic divides. More specifically, disparities exist in the distribution of educational resources nationwide, as well as the availability of education on levels, ranging from basic to higher education.

Public schools in the United States of America provide basic education from kindergarten until the twelfth grade. This is provided free of charge for the students and parents, but is paid for by taxes on property owners as well as general taxes collected by the federal government. This education is mandated by the states. With the completion of this basic schooling, one obtains a high school diploma as certification of basic skills for employers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Educational inequality in the United States</span>

Unequal access to education in the United States results in unequal outcomes for students. Disparities in academic access among students in the United States are the result of several factors including: government policies, school choice, family wealth, parenting style, implicit bias towards the race or ethnicity of students, and the resources available to students and their school. Educational inequality contributes to a number of broader problems in the United States, including income inequality and increasing prison populations. Educational inequalities in the United States are wide-ranging, and many potential solutions have been proposed to mitigate their impacts on students.

Higher education in the United States is an optional stage of formal learning following secondary education. Higher education, also referred to as post-secondary education, third-stage, third-level, or tertiary education occurs most commonly at one of the 3,899 Title IV degree-granting institutions in the country. These may be public universities, private universities, liberal arts colleges, community colleges, or for-profit colleges. Learning environments vary greatly depending on not only the type of institution, but also the different goals implemented by the relevant county and state.

References

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  3. ↑ Green, Terrance L. (2015). "Places of Inequality, Places of Possibility: Mapping "Opportunity in Geography" Across Urban School-Communities". The Urban Review. 47 (4): 717–741. doi:10.1007/s11256-015-0331-z. ISSN   0042-0972. S2CID   143146553.
  4. ↑ "Legislature OKs $617M Detroit Public Schools rescue plan". Detroit Free Press. Retrieved 2019-04-04.
  5. 1 2 3 Rosenbaum, Mark (2018-01-30), The Miseducation of America, Center for Political Studies (CPS), retrieved 2018-04-01
  6. ↑ "In Detroit, a battle over the right to literacy" . Retrieved 2018-04-01.
  7. ↑ Gonzales, Sandra M.; Shields, Carolyn M. (2015). "Education 'reform' in Latino Detroit: achievement gap or colonial legacy?". Race Ethnicity and Education. 18 (3): 321–340. doi:10.1080/13613324.2014.911170. S2CID   143759326.
  8. ↑ Beek, Michael Van. "How School Funding Works: Myths About Michigan's Foundation Allowance". www.mackinac.org. Retrieved 2021-05-30.
  9. 1 2 3 4 D., Rollandini, Mark. Michigan intermediate school districts : funding and resource allocation. p. 22. OCLC   931810396.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  10. 1 2 3 4 Van Beek, Michael (2008), School Funding In Michigan, Mackinac Center, p. 1
  11. ↑ "Bureau of Labor Statistics Data" . Retrieved 2018-03-31.
  12. ↑ Cleary, Mary Ann; Wicksall, Bethany (2010). "School Aid". Michigan House Fiscal Agency.
  13. ↑ Roth, Cheyna (24 October 2017). "Michigan scores worst in education outcomes for African-American kids, report finds". www.michiganradio.org. Retrieved 2021-05-30.
  14. ↑ Guerra, Jennifer (29 October 2013). "5 things to know about Michigan's education gap". www.michiganradio.org. Retrieved 2021-05-30.
  15. ↑ Jesse, David. "Low-income students aren't graduating from college at same rate as higher-income students". Detroit Free Press.
  16. ↑ Tanner, Kristi. "Database: Search college enrollment rates by school or district". Detroit Free Press.
  17. ↑ "Milliken v. Bradley". Oyez. Retrieved 8 April 2019.
  18. ↑ Green, Terrance; Gooden, Mark. "What it will take to truly desegregate Detroit schools". Detroit Free Press. Detroit Free Press. Retrieved 8 April 2019.
  19. ↑ Zaniewski, Ann. "New Detroit school board takes reins of district". Detroit Free Press. Detroit Free Press. Retrieved 8 April 2019.
  20. ↑ "Research: Moody's - Detroit's downtown development fueling growth, but city's demographics remain weak - Moody's". www.moodys.com. Retrieved 2021-05-30.
  21. ↑ "The Revised School Code" (PDF). Michigan's Legislature. Retrieved 8 April 2019.
  22. ↑ Lubienski, Christopher; Lee, Jin. "Competitive Incentives and the Education Market: How Charter Schools Define Themselves in Metropolitan Detroit". Peabody Journal of Education. Peabody Journal of Education. Retrieved 8 April 2019.
  23. ↑ "Accountability for all: 2016. The broken promise of Michigan's charter sector" (PDF). The Education Trust Mid-West. The Education Trust Mid-West. Retrieved 8 April 2019.
  24. ↑ "Education and Socioeconomic Status Factsheet". apa.org. Retrieved 2018-04-01.
  25. ↑ Entwisle, Doris; Alexander, Karl; Olson, Linda (1997). Children, Schools, and Inequality . Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press. ISBN   978-0813308319.
  26. 1 2 Williams, Corey (14 September 2017). "Census Figures Show Drop in Detroit Poverty Rate". U.S. News.
  27. ↑ "Wayne County MI Education data". www.towncharts.com. Archived from the original on July 28, 2016. Retrieved 2018-04-01.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  28. ↑ Checkoway, Barry; Lipa, Todd; Vivyan, Erika; Zurvalec, Sue (2017). "Engaging Suburban Students in Dialogues on Diversity in a Segregated Metropolitan Area". Education and Urban Society. 49 (4). Sage Journals: 388–402. doi:10.1177/0013124516643762. S2CID   148389138.
  29. ↑ "Blueprint 2020 | Detroit Regional Chamber". www.detroitchamber.com. Retrieved 2018-04-01.
  30. 1 2 3 Pittelko, Brian; Bommersbach, Bryan (8 July 2016). "The Employment Impact of the New Economy Initiative (NEI) on the Detroit Region and the State of Michigan" (PDF). New Economy Initiative. W.E. Upjohn Institute for Employment Research. Retrieved 21 March 2018.
  31. ↑ "Michigan Poverty Rate by County". www.indexmundi.com. Retrieved 2018-03-22.
  32. ↑ "Michigan's 50 wealthiest communities based on median household income". mlive. 2016-12-09. Retrieved 2021-05-30.
  33. ↑ "Explore Teach For America's Detroit, Michigan, Region". www.teachforamerica.org. Retrieved 2021-05-30.
  34. ↑ "What We Do | Teach For America". www.teachforamerica.org. Retrieved 2021-05-30.
  35. 1 2 "The Equality of Opportunity Project". www.equality-of-opportunity.org. Retrieved 2018-04-01.
  36. 1 2 3 "Decline of the American Dream". The Red Pin. Archived from the original on 2018-04-05. Retrieved 2018-04-01.
  37. ↑ "See graduation rates for metro Detroit's largest school districts". Detroit Free Press. Retrieved 2018-04-01.
  38. ↑ "Rochester Hills, Michigan Economy". www.bestplaces.net. Retrieved 2018-04-01.
  39. ↑ Tanner, Kristi. "Census data: For a fourth year, Michiganders see incomes rise". Detroit Free Press. Retrieved 2021-05-30.
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