Fracking in South Africa

Last updated

Fracking in South Africa is an energy production strategy at early stages of development using high-pressure drilling techniques to release natural gas trapped in shale rock. After initially imposing a moratorium on fracking in April 2011, the South African government lifted the moratorium in September 2012 after an initial investigation by an interdepartmental task team. [1] Several energy companies were subsequently granted exploration licenses. [2] Fracking in South Africa is a current topic of debate, with proponents pointing to substantial economic and energy benefits and opponents voicing concerns about potentially adverse environmental impacts.

Contents

History

Shale in the Karoo

Map of the two Karoo ecoregions as delineated by the WWF on a satellite image from NASA. The yellow line encloses the two ecoregions, with the green line separating the Succulent Karoo to the west, from the Nama Karoo to the east. Karoo ecoregion.jpg
Map of the two Karoo ecoregions as delineated by the WWF on a satellite image from NASA. The yellow line encloses the two ecoregions, with the green line separating the Succulent Karoo to the west, from the Nama Karoo to the east.

The Karoo is the geographic area that is the focus of future hydraulic fracturing in South Africa, derived from a word in the local language meaning "dry". [3] Previously a lake 275 million years ago, shale gas began to form in the low-oxygen Karoo as organic mud accumulated. [4] As pressure increased over time, the organic material within the mud gradually turned into oil and gas trapped in shale rock. [4] Estimates on how much gas is in the Karoo vary, with the Energy Information Administration (EIA) estimating reserves of 390 trillion cubic feet, which would make it the eighth largest reserve in the world. These figures, however, were based on desktop research and would only be refined through an extensive exploration programme [2] In the present day, the Karoo is a semi-desert stretching over 400,000 square kilometers and home to a population of around 1 million people. [5] [6] The Karoo is divided into two regions: the Little Karoo, which is wet, and the Great Karoo, which is mainly desert. Because of certain exclusions, including topography and townships, around 28% of the Karoo has been estimated to be accessible to commercial development. [7] Unique to the Karoo shale reserves is the presence of dolerite dykes intruding into targeted shale, which makes accessing the natural gas much more difficult and uncertain. [7]

Government involvement

While commercial interest did not come until 2008, oil companies have seen potential in the Karoo since the 1960s, when companies found “gas-bearing geological formations” in the area. [8] However, because the formations were deep underground and technology was not advanced enough to pursue such interests, commercial interest did not follow until present days. [8] The first application for energy exploration in the Karoo came in 2008 from Bundu Oil and Gas, but was not approved. [9] The next application from Royal Dutch Shell came in 2011, requesting 95,000 square kilometers of license rights. [9] Vocal opposition from civil rights and environmental organisations, farmers and landowners in the Karoo lead to a government-placed moratorium on hydraulic fracturing in April 2011. [9] Royal Dutch Shell has abandoned its application in April 2018. [9] [10] After assembling a task team to evaluate the potential costs and benefits of hydraulic fracking in South Africa, Collins Chabane, minister in the president’s office, announced an end to the moratorium in September 2012. [2] [11] [12] Amid much debate, draft regulations for hydraulic fracturing in South Africa were published in October 2013 by South Africa’s cabinet. [13] Mineral Resources Minister Susan Shabangu proposed a two-year extension of the moratorium in February 2014 for designated areas, not affecting applications submitted prior to the initial moratorium of 2011 and has also banned fracking until the release of final regulations before governmental elections on May 7, 2014. [14] A news report on March 23, 2014, reported that the final regulations for hydraulic fracturing in South Africa would be released in the middle of April 2014. [15]

In March 2014, state legislation was passed that allowed for the state to claim 100% of mining ventures, which drastically changed the 20% claim that was initially envisioned in previous negotiations. [15] Such state control has led to concerns about the potential for business improprieties similar to those committed by Enron in the United States. [16] Regardless of the controlling party, the exploration process will last for approximately 2 years. [15] If results that come from the exploration process promise worthwhile benefits, environmental impacts will be assessed and commercial fracking will occur, although it could take a decade to produce result. [15]

Hydraulic fracturing process

In order to access the natural gas trapped by shale, vertical drilling is used to puncture deep boreholes to access deeply buried shale deposits. [17] As the casings are cemented in place, horizontal drilling starts to access the production zone.

Economic impacts

One of the major arguments in favor of hydraulic fracturing in South Africa is that it could bring much needed economic benefits to the country. A national unemployment rate of around 25%, with the Karoo representing many of those unemployed, offers a large incentive for allowing hydraulic fracturing in the region. Unfortunately the majority of the unemployed are also unskilled and are unlikely to receive any jobs needed for the technical drilling operations [2] [6] 90% of electricity in South Africa is generated using coal, which many see as unsustainable, and even coal-generated electricity is unable to reach over 10% of the population. [18] It is expected that shale gas would serve as an additional fossil fuel and would not replace the domestic use of coal or the extraction thereof. South Africa is largely dependent on foreign imports for crude-oil needs, with 70% being imported. [19] Eskom Holdings Ltd. produces nearly all of South Africa’s electricity, but has struggled to meet demands. [8] South Africa has experienced rolling blackouts as a result of energy infrastructure challenges, which disrupts crucial manufacturing and mining capabilities. [8] According to recent research, a power generating capacity of 4,800 megawatts will be needed every five years for twenty years in order to keep up with rising energy demands in South Africa. [16]

While South Africa slowly moves towards fracking, American petroleum company Anadarko made an offshore discovery of a potentially very large natural gas reserve that could drive production in Mozambique, which could make it a potential competitor with South Africa. [8] South Africa is already involved in Mozambique through domestic oil company Sasol, which is developing turbines powered by gas fields in the country. [16]

The economic benefits of fracking are claimed to be potentially immense. In a controversial study commissioned and paid for by Shell, one of the applicants to explore for shale gas in South Africa, developing one tenth of the estimated Karoo for fracking could generate 200 billion rand per year and create 700,000 jobs. [13] Some characterize fracking as a more sustainable energy solution, avoiding the costs of emitting greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, of which South Africa is considered one of the “worst offenders globally.” [16] Proponents are eager to meet the South African promise to reduce harmful gas emissions by 34% by 2020. [16]

Controversy

Opposition to hydraulic fracturing in South Africa led to the government-imposed moratorium on fracking in 2011. Since the moratorium has been lifted, opposition has continued. This has led to ongoing debate on what regulations will be imposed, who will enforce them, and how they will be enforced. [20] However, many opponents continue to fight for comprehensively halting shale exploration in the Karoo.

Economic concerns

Some opponents of fracking in South Africa are skeptical of the economic benefits it may have. Some analysts have argued that the complicated process of pumping, purifying, and finding necessary materials (such as sand and water) needed for fracking activity imposes too many costs to make the venture profitable. [9] Others are skeptical of the estimates of reserve quantities, economic benefits, and job creation. While estimates by the EIA originally had the Karoo holding 485 trillion cubic feet of shale gas, new estimates from the Petroleum Agency of South Africa now state the number to be closer to 40 trillion cubic feet. [21] A Shell-commissioned study still contends that such a number would yield returns of 9.6% of South Africa’s GDP. [21] Farmers in the Karoo are also concerned that development in the area could damage the viability of agricultural work, disrupting the sensitive natural landscape they work in. [2] Lastly, fracking rights are in conflict with a radio telescope planned to be placed where Shell wishes to frack. [8] The telescope represents a $1.87 billion investment, and can only work if placed far away from industrial activity. [8]

Environmental concerns

The main concern raised against fracking is of the environment. In order to extract the gas, water and chemicals must be blasted into the shale at high pressures. [22] This process concerns opponents of fracking because of the potentially chemical leaks into sub-surface aquifers, which could affect thousands of hectares of land for many years. [22] Radioactive particles could also pollute groundwater, which is already scarce in the Karoo. [23] Proponents of the process argue that a well-maintained regulatory environment, with emergency event control protocols, would prevent environmental catastrophes from occurring. [24] In the United States, leakage has been reported in less than 1% of wells. [4] Proponents also argue that more casing can be used while drilling to prevent leakages and environmentally friendly chemicals have been developed to prevent leaks from being harmful to local water supplies. [7] Finally, proponents contend that aquifers depended on for human use in the Karoo are generally shallow, while shale pockets that could be extracted from are deeper, so contamination is less likely. [23]

A flowering Karoo environment. Karoo P1030683.JPG
A flowering Karoo environment.

Multiple concerns about water needed for hydraulic fracturing have arisen. For the first 24 exploratory wells alone, it is estimated that 57 million gallons of water will be needed. [11] However, low rainfall levels and high evaporation make South Africa the 30th driest country in the world, which is especially concerning to many opponents of fracking given the semi-desert environment of the Karoo. [18] Local villages are especially vulnerable to water shortages, often depending on a small number of wells for drinking, washing, and irrigating. [9] South Africa is projected by some to run out of water by 2025, and 95% of available fresh water was allocated by 2005. [23] Proponents propose transporting water from areas with a surplus in the immediate area, avoiding the depletion of local supplies. [18] Other strategies could involve piping in seawater after it has been purified or taking water from the Orange River, although these strategies have limitations. [7] Transportation burdens existing infrastructure, and purification of seawater is costly. [7]

Skeptics of the alleged sustainability of hydraulic fracturing have also voiced concerns. While natural gas may burn cleaner than energy sources such as coal, there is still a danger for the extraction process to release methane into the atmosphere, which is more potent than carbon dioxide. [18] Opponents also contend that there is not enough infrastructure for natural gas extraction in South Africa to replace coal, meaning that natural gas will be exported and coal will remain the source of energy of choice domestically. [18] Proponents are more optimistic that hydraulic fracturing will act as a bridge towards the development of other sources of renewable energy, decreasing the need for coal and oil consumption. [18] Opponents counter that while this strategy would decrease natural gas prices and therefore carbon dioxide emissions, the lowered prices of natural gas would deter further investment into the renewable energy sector. [18]

Further environmental concerns voiced by opponents to fracking include the potential impacts of truck congestion on and damage local road systems at great financial costs to municipalities, which could also exacerbate soil erosion on dirt roads in an already sensitive environment. [3] Fracking could also threaten regional food security by destabilizing meat and crop production that occurs in the Karoo, which feeds some of the poorest people of South Africa. [3] Lastly, because 40% of the plants found in the Karoo are unique to the regions, there are concerns that fracking could threaten the biodiversity of the region. [3]

Cultural concerns

Because life in the Karoo is intimately connected with the region’s groundwater supply, many opponents of fracking are concerned with the destruction of cultural traditions if fracking were to be introduced to the region. [3] Dr. Marie Jorritsma, an ethnomusicologist at the University of Witwatersrand, argues that there is a deep connection between the people in the Karoo and the environment itself, which is expressed through music (especially in church congregations). [3] Focusing on the town of Kroonvale, Jorritsma contends that fracking could disrupt local water supplies, destabilizing local economic practices and forcing the abandonment of significant cultural practices. [3] While gradual changes are tolerable by local communities, sudden and irreversible changes such as fracking might prove too difficult to adapt to. [3] According to Jorritsma, this would leave “a static and stricken landscape and a deathly silent soundscape.” [3]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Natural gas</span> Gaseous fossil fuel

Natural gas is a naturally occurring mixture of gaseous hydrocarbons consisting primarily of methane (97%) in addition to various smaller amounts of other higher alkanes. Low levels of trace gases like carbon dioxide, nitrogen, hydrogen sulfide, and helium are also usually present. Methane is colorless and odorless, and the second largest greenhouse gas contributor to global climate change after carbon dioxide. Because natural gas is odorless, odorizers such as mercaptan are commonly added to it for safety so that leaks can be readily detected.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Barnett Shale</span> Geological formation in Texas, United States

The Barnett Shale is a geological formation located in the Bend Arch-Fort Worth Basin. It consists of sedimentary rocks dating from the Mississippian period in Texas. The formation underlies the city of Fort Worth and underlies 5,000 mi2 (13,000 km2) and at least 17 counties.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fracking in the United States</span>

Fracking in the United States began in 1949. According to the Department of Energy (DOE), by 2013 at least two million oil and gas wells in the US had been hydraulically fractured, and that of new wells being drilled, up to 95% are hydraulically fractured. The output from these wells makes up 43% of the oil production and 67% of the natural gas production in the United States. Environmental safety and health concerns about hydraulic fracturing emerged in the 1980s, and are still being debated at the state and federal levels.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Shale gas</span> Natural gas trapped in shale formations

Shale gas is an unconventional natural gas that is found trapped within shale formations. Since the 1990s a combination of horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing has made large volumes of shale gas more economical to produce, and some analysts expect that shale gas will greatly expand worldwide energy supply.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Well stimulation</span>

Well stimulation is a well intervention performed on an oil or gas well to increase production by improving the flow of hydrocarbons from the reservoir into the well bore. It may be done using a well stimulator structure or using off shore ships / drilling vessels, also known as "Well stimulation vessels".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Monterey Formation</span> Miocene geological sedimentary formation in California

The Monterey Formation is an extensive Miocene oil-rich geological sedimentary formation in California, with outcrops of the formation in parts of the California Coast Ranges, Peninsular Ranges, and on some of California's off-shore islands. The type locality is near the city of Monterey, California. The Monterey Formation is the major source-rock for 37 to 38 billion barrels of oil in conventional traps such as sandstones. This is most of California's known oil resources. The Monterey has been extensively investigated and mapped for petroleum potential, and is of major importance for understanding the complex geological history of California. Its rocks are mostly highly siliceous strata that vary greatly in composition, stratigraphy, and tectono-stratigraphic history.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Shale gas in the United States</span>

Shale gas in the United States is an available source of unconventional natural gas. Led by new applications of hydraulic fracturing technology and horizontal drilling, development of new sources of shale gas has offset declines in production from conventional gas reservoirs, and has led to major increases in reserves of U.S. natural gas. Largely due to shale gas discoveries, estimated reserves of natural gas in the United States in 2008 were 35% higher than in 2006.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fracking</span> Fracturing bedrock by pressurized liquid

Fracking is a well stimulation technique involving the fracturing of formations in bedrock by a pressurized liquid. The process involves the high-pressure injection of "fracking fluid" into a wellbore to create cracks in the deep-rock formations through which natural gas, petroleum, and brine will flow more freely. When the hydraulic pressure is removed from the well, small grains of hydraulic fracturing proppants hold the fractures open.

Shale gas is an unconventional natural gas produced from shale, a type of sedimentary rock. Shale gas has become an increasingly important source of natural gas in the United States over the past decade, and interest has spread to potential gas shales in Canada, Europe, Asia, and Australia. One analyst expects shale gas to supply as much as half the natural gas production in North America by 2020.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fracking in the United Kingdom</span>

Fracking in the United Kingdom started in the late 1970s with fracturing of the conventional oil and gas fields near the North Sea. It was used in about 200 British onshore oil and gas wells from the early 1980s. The technique attracted attention after licences use were awarded for onshore shale gas exploration in 2008. The topic received considerable public debate on environmental grounds, with a 2019 high court ruling ultimately banning the process. The two remaining high-volume fracturing wells were supposed to be plugged and decommissioned in 2022.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fracking by country</span> Hydraulic fracturing by country

Fracking has become a contentious environmental and health issue with Tunisia and France banning the practice and a de facto moratorium in place in Quebec (Canada), and some of the states of the US.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Environmental impact of fracking in the United States</span>

Environmental impact of fracking in the United States has been an issue of public concern, and includes the contamination of ground and surface water, methane emissions, air pollution, migration of gases and fracking chemicals and radionuclides to the surface, the potential mishandling of solid waste, drill cuttings, increased seismicity and associated effects on human and ecosystem health. Research has determined that human health is affected. A number of instances with groundwater contamination have been documented due to well casing failures and illegal disposal practices, including confirmation of chemical, physical, and psychosocial hazards such as pregnancy and birth outcomes, migraine headaches, chronic rhinosinusitis, severe fatigue, asthma exacerbations, and psychological stress. While opponents of water safety regulation claim fracking has never caused any drinking water contamination, adherence to regulation and safety procedures is required to avoid further negative impacts.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Environmental impact of fracking</span>

The environmental impact of fracking is related to land use and water consumption, air emissions, including methane emissions, brine and fracturing fluid leakage, water contamination, noise pollution, and health. Water and air pollution are the biggest risks to human health from fracking. Research has determined that fracking negatively affects human health and drives climate change.

The anti-fracking movement is a political movement that seeks to ban the practice of extracting natural gasses from shale rock formations to provide power due to its negative environmental impact. These effects include the contamination of drinking water, disruption of ecosystems, and adverse effects on human and animal health. Additionally, the practice of fracking increases the amount of carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere, escalating the process of climate change and global warming. An anti-fracking movement has emerged both internationally, with involvement of international environmental organizations, and nation states such as France and locally in affected areas such as Balcombe, Sussex, in the UK. Pungești in Romania, Žygaičiai in Lithuania, and In Salah in Algeria. Through the use of direct action, media, and lobbying, the anti-fracking movement is focused on holding the gas and oil industry accountable for past and potential environmental damage, extracting compensation from and taxation of the industry to mitigate impact, and regulation of gas development and drilling activity.

Shale gas in the United Kingdom has attracted increasing attention since 2007, when unconventional onshore shale gas production was proposed. The first shale gas well in England was drilled in 1875. As of 2013 a number of wells had been drilled, and favourable tax treatment had been offered to shale gas producers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Marcellus natural gas trend</span> Natural gas extraction area in the United States

The Marcellus natural gas trend is a large geographic area of prolific shale gas extraction from the Marcellus Shale or Marcellus Formation, of Devonian age, in the eastern United States. The shale play encompasses 104,000 square miles and stretches across Pennsylvania and West Virginia, and into eastern Ohio and western New York. In 2012, it was the largest source of natural gas in the United States, and production was still growing rapidly in 2013. The natural gas is trapped in low-permeability shale, and requires the well completion method of hydraulic fracturing to allow the gas to flow to the well bore. The surge in drilling activity in the Marcellus Shale since 2008 has generated both economic benefits and considerable controversy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Regulation of fracking</span>

Countries using or considering to use fracking have implemented different regulations, including developing federal and regional legislation, and local zoning limitations. In 2011, after public pressure France became the first nation to ban hydraulic fracturing, based on the precautionary principle as well as the principal of preventive and corrective action of environmental hazards. The ban was upheld by an October 2013 ruling of the Constitutional Council. Some other countries have placed a temporary moratorium on the practice. Countries like the United Kingdom and South Africa, have lifted their bans, choosing to focus on regulation instead of outright prohibition. Germany has announced draft regulations that would allow using hydraulic fracturing for the exploitation of shale gas deposits with the exception of wetland areas.

The Canol shale play is the name for a region of Canada's Northwest Territories that is being investigated as a potential source of tight oil . The region centers around the known reserves of conventionally exploitable petroleum at Norman Wells.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fracking in Canada</span>

Fracking in Canada was first used in Alberta in 1953 to extract hydrocarbons from the giant Pembina oil field, the biggest conventional oil field in Alberta, which would have produced very little oil without fracturing. Since then, over 170,000 oil and gas wells have been fractured in Western Canada. Fracking is a process that stimulates natural gas or oil in wellbores to flow more easily by subjecting hydrocarbon reservoirs to pressure through the injection of fluids or gas at depth causing the rock to fracture or to widen existing cracks.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fracking in Ukraine</span>

Fracking in Ukraine has been used since the 1950s. The first fracking operation in Ukraine was conducted in 1954 for the underground coal gasification project. There has been a strong revival of interest in the fracking industry in Ukraine. According to the U.S. Energy Information Administration, Ukraine has third-largest shale gas reserves in Europe at 128 trillion cubic feet. As of 2011, approximately 22 domestic and foreign-owned companies have been engaged in fracking in Ukraine.

References

  1. ↑ Artel, Sabrina “South Africa Lifts Fracking Moratorium; Citizens Alarmed By U.S. Fracking Examples” Alternet. N.p., 24 Sept. 2012. Web. 14 Mar. 2014.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 Economist “Fracking the Karoo” The Economist. The Economist Newspaper, 18 Oct. 2012. Web. 14 Mar. 2014.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Jorritsma, Marie. "“Don’t Frack with Our Karoo”: Water, Landscape, and Congregational Song in Kroonvale, South Africa." Safundi: The Journal of South African and American Studies 13.3-4 (2012): 373-91. 27 Sept. 2012. Web. 30 Jan. 2014.
  4. 1 2 3 De Wit, Maarten J. "The Great Shale Debate in the Karoo." South African Journal of Science (2011): n. pag. 2011. Web. 30 Jan. 2014.
  5. ↑ Karoo Space “Karoo by numbers” Karoo Space. N.p., n.d. Web. 3 November. 2014.
  6. 1 2 Pitock, Todd “In Arid South African Lands, Fracking Controversy Emerges.” E360.Yale.edu. Yale Environment 360, 4 Aug. 2011. Web. 30 Jan. 2014.
  7. 1 2 3 4 5 Vermeulen, P.D. "A South African Perspective on Shale Gas Hydraulic Fracturing." Ed. McCullough, Lund, and Wyse. International Mine Water Association, 2012. Web. 30 Mar. 2014.
  8. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Maylie,Devon. "Fracking Debate Racks South Africa." The Wall Street Journal. Dow Jones & Company, 5 Aug. 2012. Web. 30 Mar. 2014.
  9. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Cropley, Ed “Insight: Water, Wealth and Whites.” Reuters. Thomson Reuters, 28 Oct. 2013. Web. 14 Mar. 2014.
  10. ↑ Shell retreating from aggressive fracking plans in South Africa
  11. 1 2 Feodoroff, Timothe, Jennifer Franco, and Ana Marie Rey Martinez.
  12. ↑ “Old Story, New Threat: Fracking and the Global Land Grab.” TNI.org. Transnational Institute, Oct. 2013. Web. 30 Jan. 2014.
  13. 1 2 Stoddard, Ed. “South Africa Proposes Rules for Fracking Shale Gas.” Reuters. Thomson Reuters, 10 Oct. 2013. Web. 14 Mar. 2014.
  14. ↑ Blaine, Sue. “Shabangu Wants Two-year Delay on Fracking.” Business Day Live. BDFM Publishers, 13 Feb. 2014. Web. 14 Mar. 2014.
  15. 1 2 3 4 Forde, Fiona. "SA to Be Fracked within Weeks." IOL News. Independent Online, 23 Mar. 2014. Web. 30 Mar. 2014.
  16. 1 2 3 4 5 Allix, Mark. "Fracking Remains an Unknown Quantity in SA’s Future Energy Mix." Business Day Live. BDFM Publishers, 24 Mar. 2014. Web. 30 Mar. 2014.
  17. ↑ Kotze, Petro. "Hydraulic Fracturing: Adding to the Debate." The Water Wheel Groundwater Special Edition, 2013. Web. 30 Mar. 2014.
  18. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Hedden, Steve, Jonathan D. Moyer, and Jessica Rettig. “Fracking for Shale Gas in South Africa: Blessing or Curse?” African Futures Paper 9 (2013): n. pag. ISSAfrica.com. Dec. 2013. Web. 30 Jan. 2014.
  19. ↑ Burkhardt, Paul. “South Africa Seen Facing Legal Battle Over Fracking Rules.” Bloomberg.com. Bloomberg, 16 Oct. 2013. Web. 14 Mar. 2014.
  20. ↑ Wild, Sarah. "Opposition to Fracking Peters out." Mail & Guardian. Mail & Guardian Online, 14 Feb. 2014. Web. 30 Mar. 2014.
  21. 1 2 Gosling, Melanie. “Fracking Revenue Still Not Clear – Shell.” IOL SciTech. Independent Online, 11 Mar. 2014. Web. 14 Mar. 2014.
  22. 1 2 Van Tonder, Gerrit, Fanie De Lange, Gideon Steyl, and Danie Vermeulen. “Potential Impacts of Fracking on Groundwater in the Karoo Basin of South Africa.” Archived 2016-10-20 at the Wayback Machine GWD.org. Institute for Groundwater Studies, 2013. Web. 30 Jan. 2014.
  23. 1 2 3 Blaine, Sue. "Fracking Chemicals Will Put Karoo Water at Risk, Says UK Climate Envoy." Business Day Live. BDFM Publishers, 27 Mar. 2014. Web. 30 Mar. 2014.
  24. ↑ Esterhuyse, S. “Towards the Effective Management of Groundwater Resources During Unconventional Gas Mining.” Archived 2016-03-04 at the Wayback Machine GWD.org. Centre for Environmental Management, 2013. Web. 30 Jan. 2014.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.