Freedom of information in the United States

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Freedom of information in the United States relates to the public's ability to access government records, meetings, and other information. In the United States, freedom of information legislation exists at all levels of government: federal level, state level, and local level.

Contents

Federal level

Since the founding of the United States, the public's right to know the affairs of their government has been foundational democracy. James Madison wrote during the United States Constitutional Convention, "The right of freely examining public characters and measures and free communication, is the only effective guardian of every other right." [1] [2]

Several federal laws have strengthened the public's ability to access public records.

Federal legislation

The most important was the Freedom of Information Act, signed into law on July 4, 1966, by President Lyndon Johnson.

Proposed legislation

Miscellaneous Authoritative Federal Sources

U.S. Attorney General Memoranda

History

The Holder Memo is part of series of policy memos on how federal agencies should apply FOIA exemptions. Beginning in 1977 with Attorney General Griffin Bell, and continued by Attorney General William French Smith in 1981 and Attorney General Janet Reno in 1993, U.S. Department of Justice (DOJ) has announced how the executive branch should approach FOIA, its application, and DOJ's defense of agency's actions. In other words, DOJ's position on when they would defend in a FOIA suit has seesawed for about the last three decades.

Reno Memo

The Reno Memo [6] established a "presumption" in favor of disclosure by providing that "it shall be the policy of the Department of Justice to defend the assertion of a FOIA exemption only in those cases where the agency reasonably foresees that disclosure would be harmful to an interest protected by that exemption". It encouraged all government agencies to review FOIA requests in a manner most favorable to openness and to release information, even though it might fall within one of the nine exemption categories, if no "foreseeable harm" would result from the disclosure. The goal was to achieve the "maximum responsible disclosure".

Ashcroft Memo

On October 12, 2001, Attorney General John Ashcroft issued a policy memorandum on FOIA to all federal executive agencies. The AG declared the Department of Justice (DOJ) would defend agencies' decisions to withhold documents from a FOIA requester under one of the statute's exemptions "unless they lack a sound legal basis or present an unwarranted risk of adverse impact on the ability of other agencies to protect other important records".

The Ashcroft Memorandum reversed the Reno standard. Agencies were told that in making discretionary FOIA decisions they should carefully consider the fundamental values behind the exemptions—national security, privacy, government's interests, etc.—and to lean in their favor whenever possible. The Ashcroft Memo [7] with its "sound legal basis" standard encouraged (or at least seemed to support) greater use of FOIA exemptions by federal agency personnel.

AG Holder Memo

The Ashcroft Memo was rescinded by Attorney General Eric Holder on March 14, 2009. The AG Holder Memo [8] appears to have reinstated the Reno Memo standard and extends the policy. The policy of the executive branch is to be open, responsive, transparent, and accountable. The current memo encourages the maximum disclosure possible in discretionary exemptions and to, whenever possible, reasonably segregate exempt information and release the rest.

State legislation

All fifty U.S. states and the District of Columbia also have freedom of information laws that govern the public's access to government records at state and local levels. [9] These laws go by many different names including Sunshine Laws, Public Records Laws, Open Records Laws, etc. Additionally, Open Meeting Laws govern the public's access to meetings of public officials or appointed boards. [10]

All Freedom of Information style laws supports the ideal that in a democracy, people have the right to know the business of their government. However, the laws vary in scope and strength among jurisdictions. [1] For example, Florida's Sunshine Law creates both a statutory and constitutional right to access whereas many states only provide the statutory right. [2] Additionally, while a state may have strong legislation the state's compliance with its own laws may negatively impact the public's ability to access records. [11]

Freedom of Information laws by state and territory

StateFreedom of Information LawCode Section [12] First EnactedWho May Request Records [12]
AlabamaAlabama Public Records LawAl. Code §§ 36-12-40; 36-12-411923 [13] Any citizen
AlaskaAlaska Public Records ActA.S. §§ 40.25.110 to 40.25.125; 40.25.1511900 [14] Any person
American SamoaAmerican Samoa Public Records ActA.S.C.A. §§ 2.0101 et seq.1984 [15] Any person
ArizonaArizona Public Records LawA.R.S. §§ 39–121.01 to 39–121.031901 [16] Any person
ArkansasArkansas Freedom of Information ActArk. Code Ann. §§ 25-19-101 to 25-19-1111967 [17] Citizens of the state/commonwealth
California California Public Records Act Gov't Code §§ 7920.000 to 7931.000 [a] 1968 [18] Any person
Colorado Colorado Open Records Act C.R.S. §§ 24-72-200.1 to 24-72-205.51969 [19] Any person
ConnecticutConnecticut Freedom of Information ActConnecticut General Statutes Chapter 14 §§ 1–200 to 1-2421975 [20] Any person
DelawareDelaware Freedom of Information ActTit. 29, §§ 10001 to 10007; 101121977 [21] Citizens of the state/commonwealth
District of ColumbiaFreedom of Information Act [22] DC Official Code §§ 2–531 to 2-5401974 [23] Any person
FloridaFlorida Sunshine LawFla. Stat. §§ 119.01 to 119.191967 [24] Any person
GeorgiaGeorgia Open Records ActO.C.G.A. §§ 50-18-70 to 50-18-1031959 [25] Citizens of the state/commonwealth
GuamGuam Sunshine Reform Act of 19995 GCA §§ 10101 to 101251999 [26] Any person
HawaiiUniform Information Practices Act (Modified)Haw. Rev. Stat. §§ 92F-1 to 92F-431975 [27] Any person
IdahoIdaho Public Records ActIdaho Code §§ 74–101 to 74-1261990 [28] Any person
Illinois Illinois Freedom of Information Act ILCS 5 §§ 140/1 to 140/11.61984 [29] Any person
IndianaAccess to Public Records ActIN Code §§ 5-14-3-1 to 5-14-3-101983 [30] Any person
IowaIowa Open Records LawIowa Code §§ 22.1 to 22.161967 [31] Any person
KansasKansas Open Records ActKSA §§ 45–215 to 45-5241984 [32] Any person
KentuckyKentucky Open Records ActKentucky Revised Statute Chapter §§ 61.870 to 61.8841976 [33] From Kentucky: "an individual residing in Kentucky, a domestic business with a location in Kentucky (or an out-of-state business registered with the Secretary of State), a person who works in Kentucky, a person or business that owns real property within Kentucky, a person or business authorized to act on behalf of a Kentucky resident, or a news-gathering organization"; inmates have some restrictions; non-Kentucky people may request records, but their requests can be denied
LouisianaLouisiana Public Records LawLa.R.S. §§ 44:31 to 44:411940 [34] Any person 18 or older
MaineMaine Freedom of Access ActTit. 1, §§ 400 to 4341959 [35] Any person
MarylandMaryland Public Information ActGen. Provis. §§ 4–101 to 4-6011970 [36] Any person
Massachusetts Massachusetts Public Records Law Mass. Gen. Laws ch. 66, §§ 1 to 211897 [37] Any person
MichiganMichigan Freedom of Information ActMich. Comp. Laws Ann. §§ 15.231 to 15.2461977 [38] Any person
MinnesotaMinnesota Data Practices ActMinn. Statutes §§ 13.01 to 13.99 Ch. 13 Appendix1974 [39] Any person
MississippiMississippi Public Records ActMiss. Code Ann. §§ 25-61-1 to 25-61-191983 [40] Any person
Missouri Missouri Public Records Act Mo. Code §§ 109.180; 610.010 to 610.2251961 [41] Citizens of the state/commonwealth
MontanaMontana Public Records ActMontana Code §§ 2-6-101 to 2-6-10201895 [42] Any person
NebraskaNebraska Public Records LawNebraska Statutes §§ 84–712 to 84-712.091866 [43] Any person
NevadaNevada Open Records ActN.R.S. §§ 239.010-239.3401911 [44] Any person
New HampshireRight to Know LawR.S.A. Ch. 91-A:1 to 91-A:101967 [45] Any citizen
New Jersey New Jersey Open Public Records Act N.J.S.A. §§ 47:1A-1 to 47:1A-132002 [46] Citizens of the state/commonwealth
New MexicoInspection of Public Records ActNMSA §§ 14-2-1 to 14-2-121993 [47] Any person
New YorkNew York Freedom of Information LawPub. Off. §§ 84 to 901974 [48] Any person
North CarolinaNorth Carolina Public Records LawNCGS Chapter 132–1 to 132-111995 [49] Any person
North DakotaOpen Records StatuteNDCC §§ 44-04-18 to 44-04-321957 [50] Any person
Northern Mariana IslandsOpen Government Act of 19921 CMC §§ 9901 to 99101992 [51] Any person
OhioOhio Open Records LawOhio Rev. Code §§ 149.43 to 149.45; 2743.751963 [52] Any person
OklahomaOklahoma Open Records ActTitle 51 Oklahoma Statutes §§ 24A.1 to 24A.321999 [53] Any person
OregonOregon Public Records LawO.R.S. §§ 192.311 to 192.5131973 [54] Any person
PennsylvaniaRight-to-Know Law65 Pennsylvania Statute §§ 67.101 to 67.13101957 [55] Any legal resident of the United States
Puerto RicoPuerto Rico Transparency and Access to Public Information ActLaw No. 141-20192019 [56] Any person
Rhode IslandRhode Island Access to Public Records ActP.L. §§ 38-2-1 to 38-2-161979 [57] Any person
South CarolinaSouth Carolina Freedom of Information ActS.C. Code Ann. §§ 30-4-10 to 30-4-1651974 [58] Any person
South DakotaSouth Dakota Sunshine LawSDCL Chapter 1-27-1 to 1-27-482009 [59] Any person
Tennessee Tennessee Open Records Act Tenn. Code Ann. §§ 10-7-503 to 10-7-5081957 [60] Citizens of the state/commonwealth
Texas Texas Public Information Act Gov't §§ 552.001 to 552.3761973 [61] Any person
UtahGovernment Records Access and Management ActUtah Code Title 63G-2-101 to 63G-2-8041991 [62] Any person
VermontVermont Open Records LawVermont Statute Tit. 1, §§ 315 to 3201976 [63] Any person
VirginiaVirginia Freedom of Information ActCode of Virginia §§ 2.2-3700 to 2.2-37151968 [64] Citizens of the state/commonwealth
Virgin IslandsVirgin Islands Sunshine ActV.I. Code tit. 3, §§ 881–8841976 [65] Any person
Washington Washington Public Records Act RCW §§ 42.56.001 to 42.56.9041972 [66] Any person
West VirginiaWest Virginia Freedom of Information ActW.Va. Code §§ 29B-1-1 to 29B-1-71977 [67] Any person
WisconsinWisconsin Open Records LawWisconsin Statute §§ 19.21 to 19.391981 [68] Any person
WyomingWyoming Sunshine LawWyo. Stat. §§ 16-4-201 to 16-4-2051983 [69] Any person
  1. ↑ Originally Gov't Code §§ 6250 to 6276.48 until January 1, 2023.

See also

Individuals

U.S.

References

  1. 1 2 Stewart, Daxton R. "Chip" (2010-07-08). "Let the Sunshine In, or Else: An Examination of the "Teeth" of State and Federal Open Meetings and Open Records Laws" . Communication Law and Policy. 15 (3): 265–310. doi:10.1080/10811680.2010.489858. ISSN   1081-1680. S2CID   144106823.
  2. 1 2 Edwards, K. (2003). "Freedom of information laws". Encyclopedia of International Media and Communications . pp. 53–67. doi:10.1016/B0-12-387670-2/00100-X. ISBN   9780123876706 – via Elsevier Science & Technology.
  3. ↑ Gold, Hadas (26 February 2014). "House unanimously passes FOIA bill". Politico (blog). Retrieved 19 April 2015.
  4. ↑ FOIA (Act H.R. 1211). 25 February 2014. Retrieved 19 April 2015.
  5. ↑ "Freedom of Information Act". whitehouse.gov . 21 January 2009 – via National Archives.
  6. ↑ "FOIA Update: Attorney General Reno's FOIA Memorandum". 13 August 2014.
  7. ↑ "New Attorney General FOIA Memorandum Issued".
  8. ↑ http://www.usdoj.gov/ag/foia-memo-march2009.pdf [ bare URL PDF ]
  9. ↑ "State Public Record Laws". FOIAdvocates.
  10. ↑ Kaye, Janet (2008-06-05), "Open Meetings Law" , in Donsbach, Wolfgang (ed.), The International Encyclopedia of Communication, Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, pp. wbieco010, doi:10.1002/9781405186407.wbieco010, ISBN   978-1-4051-8640-7 , retrieved 2023-03-16
  11. ↑ "States Failing FOI Responsiveness – National Freedom of Information Coalition". 2007. Retrieved 2023-03-17.
  12. 1 2 National survey of state laws. Richard A. Leiter, Wendy Leiter (9th ed.). Getzville, NY: William S. Hein & Co., Inc. 2022. pp. 807–816. ISBN   978-0-8377-4269-4. OCLC   1343162981.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  13. ↑ "Open Government Guide Alabama - Reporters Committee". The Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press. Retrieved 2023-03-05.
  14. ↑ "Open Government Guide Alaska - Reporters Committee". The Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press. Retrieved 2023-03-05.
  15. ↑ "American Samoa Code Annotated". American Samoa Bar Association. Retrieved 2025-06-21.
  16. ↑ "Open Government Guide Arizona - Reporters Committee". The Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press. Retrieved 2023-03-05.
  17. ↑ "Open Government Guide Arkansas - Reporters Committee". The Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press. Retrieved 2023-03-05.
  18. ↑ "California Public Records Act FAQs". post.ca.gov. Retrieved 2023-03-05.
  19. ↑ "Open Government Guide Colorado - Reporters Committee". The Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press. Retrieved 2023-03-05.
  20. ↑ "Open Government Guide Connecticut - Reporters Committee". The Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press. Retrieved 2023-03-05.
  21. ↑ "Open Government Guide Delaware - Reporters Committee". The Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press. Retrieved 2023-03-05.
  22. ↑ Office of Open Government. "Freedom of Information Act (FOIA)". Open DC. Retrieved March 3, 2023.
  23. ↑ "Open Government Guide District of Columbia - Reporters Committee". The Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press. Retrieved 2023-03-05.
  24. ↑ Kalil, Earl L. (1975). "Florida Sunshine Law". Florida Bar Journal. 49 (2): 72–116 – via HeinOnline.
  25. ↑ "Open Government Guide Georgia - Reporters Committee". The Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press. Retrieved 2023-03-05.
  26. ↑ "Guam Sunshine Reform Act of 1999". Compiler of Laws of Guam. Retrieved 2025-06-21.
  27. ↑ "Open Government Guide Hawaii - Reporters Committee". The Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press. Retrieved 2023-03-05.
  28. ↑ Younger, Cally (2015). "In Year 25 Idaho's Public Records Law Gets a Checkup by Idaho's Public Records Ombudsman". Advocate (Idaho State Bar). 58 (2): 32–34 – via HeinOnline.
  29. ↑ "Open Government Guide Illinois - Reporters Committee". The Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press. Retrieved 2023-03-05.
  30. ↑ Office of the Public Access Counselor (2022). "Handbook on Indiana's Public Access Laws" (PDF). Access to Public Records Act. Retrieved March 3, 2022.
  31. ↑ "Open Government Guide Iowa - Reporters Committee". The Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press. Retrieved 2023-03-05.
  32. ↑ "Open Government Guide Kansas - Reporters Committee". The Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press. Retrieved 2023-03-05.
  33. ↑ "Open Government Guide Kentucky - Reporters Committee". The Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press. Retrieved 2023-03-05.
  34. ↑ "Open Government Guide Louisiana - Reporters Committee". The Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press. Retrieved 2023-03-05.
  35. ↑ "Open Government Guide Maine - Reporters Committee". The Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press. Retrieved 2023-03-06.
  36. ↑ "In new report, Maryland open-records officials urge greater transparency". Washington Post. ISSN   0190-8286 . Retrieved 2023-03-07.
  37. ↑ "Open Government Guide Massachusetts - Reporters Committee". The Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press. Retrieved 2023-03-06.
  38. ↑ "Open Government Guide Michigan - Reporters Committee". The Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press. Retrieved 2023-03-06.
  39. ↑ "Open Government Guide Minnesota - Reporters Committee". The Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press. Retrieved 2023-03-06.
  40. ↑ "Open Government Guide Mississippi - Reporters Committee". The Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press. Retrieved 2023-03-06.
  41. ↑ "Missouri". The Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press. Retrieved 2023-03-06.
  42. ↑ "Open Government Guide Montana - Reporters Committee". The Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press. Retrieved 2023-03-06.
  43. ↑ "Outline of Nebraska Public Records Statutes". Attorney General Mike Hilgers. 2023. Retrieved 2023-03-06.
  44. ↑ "Open Government Guide Nevada - Reporters Committee". The Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press. Retrieved 2023-03-06.
  45. ↑ "Open Government Guide New Hampshire - Reporters Committee". The Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press. Retrieved 2023-03-06.
  46. ↑ "Open Government Guide New Jersey - Reporters Committee". The Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press. Retrieved 2023-03-06.
  47. ↑ "Open Government Guide New Mexico - Reporters Committee". The Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press. Retrieved 2023-03-06.
  48. ↑ "Open Government Guide New York - Reporters Committee". The Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press. Retrieved 2023-03-06.
  49. ↑ "Open Government Guide North Carolina - Reporters Committee". The Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press. Retrieved 2023-03-06.
  50. ↑ The State and Local Division, Office of Attorney General (2022). "Open Records Manual" (PDF). North Dakota Office of Attorney General. Retrieved March 9, 2023.
  51. ↑ "Northern Mariana Islands Commonwealth Code". NMI Law Revision Commission. Retrieved 2025-06-21.
  52. ↑ "Open Government Guide Ohio - Reporters Committee". The Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press. Retrieved 2023-03-06.
  53. ↑ "Open Government Guide Oklahoma - Reporters Committee". The Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press. Retrieved 2023-03-06.
  54. ↑ "Oregon". The Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press. Retrieved 2023-03-06.
  55. ↑ Pileggi, Dominic (2007). "Pennsylvania's Right-to-Know Law" (PDF). The Office of Open Records. Retrieved March 9, 2023.
  56. ↑ "Puerto Rico Transparency and Access to Public Information Act". Lexology. Retrieved 2025-06-21.
  57. ↑ "Open Government Guide Rhode Island - Reporters Committee". The Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press. Retrieved 2023-03-06.
  58. ↑ "Open Government Guide South Carolina - Reporters Committee". The Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press. Retrieved 2023-03-06.
  59. ↑ "Open Government Guide South Dakota - Reporters Committee". The Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press. Retrieved 2023-03-06.
  60. ↑ "Open Government Guide Tennessee - Reporters Committee". The Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press. Retrieved 2023-03-09.
  61. ↑ "Open Government Guide Texas - Reporters Committee". The Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press. Retrieved 2023-03-06.
  62. ↑ "Open Government Guide Utah - Reporters Committee". The Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press. Retrieved 2023-03-06.
  63. ↑ "Vermont State Archives & Records Administration". Vermont Secretary of State. Retrieved 2023-03-06.
  64. ↑ "Open Government Guide Virginia - Reporters Committee". The Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press. Retrieved 2023-03-06.
  65. ↑ "Virgin Islands Code". Justia Law. Retrieved 2025-06-21.
  66. ↑ "Open Government Guide Washington - Reporters Committee". The Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press. Retrieved 2023-03-06.
  67. ↑ McGraw, Jr., Darrell V. (2011). "The West Virginia Freedom of Information Act" (PDF). Retrieved March 9, 2023.
  68. ↑ "Open Government Guide Wisconsin - Reporters Committee". The Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press. Retrieved 2023-03-06.
  69. ↑ "Open Government Guide Wyoming - Reporters Committee". The Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press. Retrieved 2023-03-09.
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