Gravimetric analysis

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Gravimetric analysis
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Analytical balance
ClassificationGravimetric
Analytes Solids
Liquids
Other techniques
Related Precipitation
Titration

Gravimetric analysis describes a set of methods used in analytical chemistry for the quantitative determination of an analyte (the ion being analyzed) based on its mass. The principle of this type of analysis is that once an ion's mass has been determined as a unique compound, that known measurement can then be used to determine the same analyte's mass in a mixture, as long as the relative quantities of the other constituents are known. [1]

Contents

The four main types of this method of analysis are precipitation, volatilization, electro-analytical and miscellaneous physical method. [2] The methods involve changing the phase of the analyte to separate it in its pure form from the original mixture and are quantitative measurements.

Precipitation method

The precipitation method is the one used for the determination of the amount of calcium in water. Using this method, an excess of oxalic acid, H2C2O4, is added to a measured, known volume of water. By adding a reagent, here ammonium oxalate, the calcium will precipitate as calcium oxalate. The proper reagent, when added to aqueous solution, will produce highly insoluble precipitates from the positive and negative ions that would otherwise be soluble with their counterparts (equation 1). [3]

The reaction is:

Formation of calcium oxalate:

Ca2+(aq) + C2O42- → CaC2O4

The precipitate is collected, dried and ignited to high (red) heat which converts it entirely to calcium oxide.

The reaction is pure calcium oxide formed

CaC2O4 → CaO(s) + CO(g)+ CO2(g)

The pure precipitate is cooled, then measured by weighing, and the difference in weights before and after reveals the mass of analyte lost, in this case calcium oxide. [4] [5] That number can then be used to calculate the amount, or the percent concentration, of it in the original mix. [2] [4] [5]

Volatilization methods

Volatilization methods can be either direct or indirect. Water eliminated in a quantitative manner from many inorganic substances by ignition is an example of a direct determination. It is collected on a solid desiccant and its mass determined by the gain in mass of the desiccant.

Another direct volatilization method involves carbonates which generally decompose to release carbon dioxide when acids are used. Because carbon dioxide is easily evolved when heat is applied, its mass is directly established by the measured increase in the mass of the absorbent solid used. [6] [7]

Determination of the amount of water by measuring the loss in mass of the sample during heating is an example of an indirect method. It is well known that changes in mass occur due to decomposition of many substances when heat is applied, regardless of the presence or absence of water. Because one must make the assumption that water was the only component lost, this method is less satisfactory than direct methods.

This often faulty and misleading assumption has proven to be wrong on more than a few occasions. There are many substances other than water loss that can lead to loss of mass with the addition of heat, as well as a number of other factors that may contribute to it. The widened margin of error created by this all-too-often false assumption is not one to be lightly disregarded as the consequences could be far-reaching.

Nevertheless, the indirect method, although less reliable than direct, is still widely used in commerce. For example, it's used to measure the moisture content of cereals, where a number of imprecise and inaccurate instruments are available for this purpose.


Types of volatilization methods

In volatilization methods, removal of the analyte involves separation by heating or chemically decomposing a volatile sample at a suitable temperature. [2] [8] In other words, thermal or chemical energy is used to precipitate a volatile species. [9] For example, the water content of a compound can be determined by vaporizing the water using thermal energy (heat). Heat can also be used, if oxygen is present, for combustion to isolate the suspect species and obtain the desired results.

The two most common gravimetric methods using volatilization are those for water and carbon dioxide. [2] An example of this method is the isolation of sodium hydrogen bicarbonate (the main ingredient in most antacid tablets) from a mixture of carbonate and bicarbonate. [2] The total amount of this analyte, in whatever form, is obtained by addition of an excess of dilute sulfuric acid to the analyte in solution.

In this reaction, nitrogen gas is introduced through a tube into the flask which contains the solution. As it passes through, it gently bubbles. The gas then exits, first passing a drying agent (here CaSO4, the common desiccant Drierite). It then passes a mixture of the drying agent and sodium hydroxide which lies on asbestos or Ascarite II, a non-fibrous silicate containing sodium hydroxide. [10] The mass of the carbon dioxide is obtained by measuring the increase in mass of this absorbent. [2] This is performed by measuring the difference in weight of the tube in which the ascarite contained before and after the procedure.

The calcium sulfate (CaSO4) in the tube retains carbon dioxide selectively as it's heated, and thereby, removed from the solution. The drying agent absorbs any aerosolized water and/or water vapor (reaction 3.). The mix of the drying agent and NaOH absorbs the CO2 and any water that may have been produced as a result of the absorption of the NaOH (reaction 4.). [11]

The reactions are:

Reaction 3 - absorption of water

NaHCO3(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → CO2(g) + H2O(l) + NaHSO4(aq). [11]

Reaction 4. Absorption of CO2 and residual water

CO2(g) + 2 NaOH(s) → Na2CO3(s) + H2O(l). [11]

Example

A chunk of ore is to be analyzed for sulfur content. It is treated with concentrated nitric acid and potassium chlorate to convert all of the sulfur to sulfate (SO2−
4). The nitrate and chlorate are removed by treating the solution with concentrated HCl. The sulfate is precipitated with barium (Ba2+) and weighed as BaSO4.

Advantages

Gravimetric analysis, if methods are followed carefully, provides for exceedingly precise analysis. In fact, gravimetric analysis was used to determine the atomic masses of many elements in the periodic table to six figure accuracy. Gravimetry provides very little room for instrumental error and does not require a series of standards for calculation of an unknown. Also, methods often do not require expensive equipment. Gravimetric analysis, due to its high degree of accuracy, when performed correctly, can also be used to calibrate other instruments in lieu of reference standards. Gravimetric analysis is currently used to allow undergraduate chemistry/Biochemistry students to experience a grad level laboratory and it is a highly effective teaching tool to those who want to attend medical school or any research graduate school.

Disadvantages

Gravimetric analysis usually only provides for the analysis of a single element, or a limited group of elements, at a time. Comparing modern dynamic flash combustion coupled with gas chromatography with traditional combustion analysis will show that the former is both faster and allows for simultaneous determination of multiple elements while traditional determination allowed only for the determination of carbon and hydrogen. Methods are often convoluted and a slight mis-step in a procedure can often mean disaster for the analysis (colloid formation in precipitation gravimetry, for example). Compare this with hardy methods such as spectrophotometry and one will find that analysis by these methods is much more efficient.

Solubility in the presence of diverse ions

Diverse ions have a screening effect on dissociated ions which leads to extra dissociation. Solubility will show a clear increase in presence of diverse ions as the solubility product will increase. Look at the following example:

Find the solubility of AgCl (Ksp = 1.0 x 10−10) in 0.1 M NaNO3. The activity coefficients for silver and chloride are 0.75 and 0.76, respectively.

AgCl(s) = Ag+ + Cl−

We can no longer use the thermodynamic equilibrium constant (i.e. in absence of diverse ions) and we have to consider the concentration equilibrium constant or use activities instead of concentration if we use Kth:

Ksp = aAg+ aCl−
Ksp = [Ag+] fAg+ [Cl−] fCl−
1.0 x 10−10 = s x 0.75 x s x 0.76
s = 1.3 x 10−5 M

We have calculated the solubility of AgCl in pure water to be 1.0 x 10−5 M, if we compare this value to that obtained in presence of diverse ions we see % increase in solubility = {(1.3 x 10−5 – 1.0 x 10−5) / 1.0 x 10−5} x 100 = 30% Therefore, once again we have an evidence for an increase in dissociation or a shift of equilibrium to right in presence of diverse ions.

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Analytical chemistry</span> Study of the separation, identification, and quantification of matter

Analytical chemistry studies and uses instruments and methods to separate, identify, and quantify matter. In practice, separation, identification or quantification may constitute the entire analysis or be combined with another method. Separation isolates analytes. Qualitative analysis identifies analytes, while quantitative analysis determines the numerical amount or concentration.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Carbonate</span> Salt or ester of carbonic acid

A carbonate is a salt of carbonic acid,, characterized by the presence of the carbonate ion, a polyatomic ion with the formula CO2−3. The word "carbonate" may also refer to a carbonate ester, an organic compound containing the carbonate groupO=C(−O−)2.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Titration</span> Laboratory method for determining the concentration of an analyte

Titration is a common laboratory method of quantitative chemical analysis to determine the concentration of an identified analyte. A reagent, termed the titrant or titrator, is prepared as a standard solution of known concentration and volume. The titrant reacts with a solution of analyte to determine the analyte's concentration. The volume of titrant that reacted with the analyte is termed the titration volume.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Calcium carbonate</span> Chemical compound

Calcium carbonate is a chemical compound with the chemical formula CaCO3. It is a common substance found in rocks as the minerals calcite and aragonite, most notably in chalk and limestone, eggshells, gastropod shells, shellfish skeletons and pearls. Materials containing much calcium carbonate or resembling it are described as calcareous. Calcium carbonate is the active ingredient in agricultural lime and is produced when calcium ions in hard water react with carbonate ions to form limescale. It has medical use as a calcium supplement or as an antacid, but excessive consumption can be hazardous and cause hypercalcemia and digestive issues.

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sodium carbonate</span> Chemical compound

Sodium carbonate is the inorganic compound with the formula Na2CO3 and its various hydrates. All forms are white, odourless, water-soluble salts that yield alkaline solutions in water. Historically, it was extracted from the ashes of plants grown in sodium-rich soils, and because the ashes of these sodium-rich plants were noticeably different from ashes of wood, sodium carbonate became known as "soda ash". It is produced in large quantities from sodium chloride and limestone by the Solvay process, as well as by carbonating sodium hydroxide which is made using the chloralkali process.

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Silver chromate</span> Chemical compound

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Oilfield scale inhibition is the process of preventing the formation of scale from blocking or hindering fluid flow through pipelines, valves, and pumps used in oil production and processing. Scale inhibitors (SIs) are a class of specialty chemicals that are used to slow or prevent scaling in water systems. Oilfield scaling is the precipitation and accumulation of insoluble crystals (salts) from a mixture of incompatible aqueous phases in oil processing systems. Scale is a common term in the oil industry used to describe solid deposits that grow over time, blocking and hindering fluid flow through pipelines, valves, pumps etc. with significant reduction in production rates and equipment damages. Scaling represents a major challenge for flow assurance in the oil and gas industry. Examples of oilfield scales are calcium carbonate (limescale), iron sulfides, barium sulfate and strontium sulfate. Scale inhibition encompasses the processes or techniques employed to treat scaling problems.

References

  1. ↑ Yoder, Claude (January 8, 2017). "Gravimetric Analysis". wiredchemist.com. Archived from the original on January 7, 2017. Retrieved January 8, 2017.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Skoog, Douglas; West, Douglas M; Holler, F James (1996). "5: Gravimetric Analysis". Fundamentals of Analytical Chemistry (7th ed.). Fort Worth: Saunders College Publishing Harcourt Brace. pp. 71–96. LCCN   95-067683.
  3. ↑ "Chapter 3, Gravimetry". www.csudh.edu/. January 8, 2017. Archived from the original on November 25, 2016. Retrieved January 8, 2017.
  4. 1 2 Holler, F. James; Skoog, Douglas A.; West, Donald M. (1996). Fundamentals of analytical chemistry. Philadelphia: Saunders College Pub. ISBN   978-0-03-005938-4.
  5. 1 2 Hulanicki A. (1987). Reactions of Acids and Bases in Analytical Chemistry. Horwood. ISBN   978-0-85312-330-9.
  6. ↑ Skoog, Douglas A (1996). Fundamentals of Analytical Chemistry. Saunders and Harcourt Brace. p. 97.
  7. ↑ Petrucci, Ralph H; Harwood, William S (1993). Corey, Paul F (ed.). General Chemistry: Principals and Modern Applications. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company. pp. 265–268. ISBN   978-0-02-394931-9.
  8. ↑ "Introduction to gravimetric analysis". January 8, 2017. Archived from the original on August 1, 2019. Retrieved January 8, 2017.
  9. ↑ "Gravimetric Methods of Analysis" (PDF). January 8, 2017. Archived from the original (PDF) on November 18, 2017. Retrieved January 8, 2017.
  10. ↑ Skoog, Douglas A; West, Donald M; Holler, F James (1995). "5.6". Fundamentals of Analytical Chemistry (Seventh ed.). Fort Worth: Saunders College Publishing and Harcourt Brace. pp. 96–97. LCCN   95-067683.
  11. 1 2 3 "Section 3-2: Volatilization methods". January 8, 2017. Archived from the original on November 25, 2016. Retrieved January 8, 2017.
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