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Type 2 diabetes (T2D), formerly known as adult-onset diabetes, is a form of diabetes mellitus that is characterized by high blood sugar, insulin resistance, and relative lack of insulin. Common symptoms include increased thirst, frequent urination, fatigue and unexplained weight loss. Symptoms may also include increased hunger, having a sensation of pins and needles, and sores (wounds) that do not heal. Often symptoms come on slowly. Long-term complications from high blood sugar include heart disease, strokes, diabetic retinopathy which can result in blindness, kidney failure, and poor blood flow in the limbs which may lead to amputations. The sudden onset of hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state may occur; however, ketoacidosis is uncommon.
Leptin is a protein hormone predominantly made by adipocytes and its primary role is likely to regulate long-term energy balance.
Amenorrhea is the absence of a menstrual period in a female who has reached reproductive age. Physiological states of amenorrhoea are seen, most commonly, during pregnancy and lactation (breastfeeding). Outside the reproductive years, there is absence of menses during childhood and after menopause.
In medicine, precocious puberty is puberty occurring at an unusually early age. In most cases, the process is normal in every aspect except the unusually early age and simply represents a variation of normal development. In a minority of children with precocious puberty, the early development is triggered by a disease such as a tumor or injury of the brain. Even when there is no disease, unusually early puberty can have adverse effects on social behavior and psychological development, can reduce adult height potential, and may shift some lifelong health risks. Central precocious puberty can be treated by suppressing the pituitary hormones that induce sex steroid production. The opposite condition is delayed puberty.
Delayed puberty is when a person lacks or has incomplete development of specific sexual characteristics past the usual age of onset of puberty. The person may have no physical or hormonal signs that puberty has begun. In the United States, girls are considered to have delayed puberty if they lack breast development by age 13 or have not started menstruating by age 15. Boys are considered to have delayed puberty if they lack enlargement of the testicles by age 14. Delayed puberty affects about 2% of adolescents.
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Congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency (CAH) is a genetic disorder characterized by impaired production of cortisol in the adrenal glands.
Kallmann syndrome (KS) is a genetic disorder that prevents a person from starting or fully completing puberty. Kallmann syndrome is a form of a group of conditions termed hypogonadotropic hypogonadism. To distinguish it from other forms of hypogonadotropic hypogonadism, Kallmann syndrome has the additional symptom of a total lack of sense of smell (anosmia) or a reduced sense of smell. If left untreated, people will have poorly defined secondary sexual characteristics, show signs of hypogonadism, almost invariably are infertile and are at increased risk of developing osteoporosis. A range of other physical symptoms affecting the face, hands and skeletal system can also occur.
Hyperandrogenism is a medical condition characterized by high levels of androgens. It is more common in women than men. Symptoms of hyperandrogenism may include acne, seborrhea, hair loss on the scalp, increased body or facial hair, and infrequent or absent menstruation. Complications may include high blood cholesterol and diabetes. It occurs in approximately 5% of women of reproductive age.
Congenital hyperinsulinism (HI or CHI) is a rare condition causing severe hypoglycemia in newborns due to the overproduction of insulin. There are various causes of HI, some of which are known to be the result of a genetic mutation. Sometimes HI occurs on its own (isolated) and more rarely associated with other medical conditions.
Octreotide, sold under the brand name Sandostatin among others, is an octapeptide that mimics natural somatostatin pharmacologically, though it is a more potent inhibitor of growth hormone, glucagon, and insulin than the natural hormone. It was first synthesized in 1979 by the chemist Wilfried Bauer, and binds predominantly to the somatostatin receptors SSTR2 and SSTR5.
A craniopharyngioma is a rare type of brain tumor derived from pituitary gland embryonic tissue that occurs most commonly in children, but also affects adults. It may present at any age, even in the prenatal and neonatal periods, but peak incidence rates are childhood-onset at 5–14 years and adult-onset at 50–74 years. People may present with bitemporal inferior quadrantanopia leading to bitemporal hemianopsia, as the tumor may compress the optic chiasm. It has a point prevalence around two per 1,000,000. Craniopharyngiomas are distinct from Rathke's cleft tumours and intrasellar arachnoid cysts.
Adrenocorticotropic hormone deficiency is a rare disorder characterized by secondary adrenal insufficiency with minimal or no cortisol production and normal pituitary hormone secretion apart from ACTH. ACTH deficiency may be congenital or acquired, and its symptoms are clinically similar to those of glucocorticoid deficiency. Symptoms consist of weight loss, diminished appetite, muscle weakness, nausea, vomiting, and hypotension. Low blood sugar and hyponatremia are possible; however, blood potassium levels typically remain normal because affected patients are deficient in glucocorticoids rather than mineralocorticoids because of their intact renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system. ACTH may be undetectable in blood tests, and cortisol is abnormally low. Glucocorticoid replacement therapy is required. With the exception of stressful situations, some patients with mild or nearly asymptomatic disease may not require glucocorticoid replacement therapy. As of 2008 about two hundred cases have been described in the literature.
Bariatric surgery is a medical term for surgical procedures used to manage obesity and obesity-related conditions. Long term weight loss with bariatric surgery may be achieved through alteration of gut hormones, physical reduction of stomach size, reduction of nutrient absorption, or a combination of these. Standard of care procedures include Roux en-Y bypass, sleeve gastrectomy, and biliopancreatic diversion with duodenal switch, from which weight loss is largely achieved by altering gut hormone levels responsible for hunger and satiety, leading to a new hormonal weight set point.
Adrenal crisis, also known as Addisonian crisis or Acute adrenal insufficiency, is a serious, life-threatening complication of adrenal insufficiency. Hypotension, or hypovolemic shock, is the main symptom of adrenal crisis, other indications and symptoms include weakness, anorexia, nausea, vomiting, fever, fatigue, abnormal electrolytes, confusion, and coma. Laboratory testing may detect lymphocytosis, eosinophilia, hyponatremia, hyperkalemia, hypoglycemia, and on occasion, hypercalcemia.
Rapid-onset obesity with hypothalamic dysregulation, hypoventilation, and autonomic dysregulation (ROHHAD) is a rare condition whose etiology is currently unknown. ROHHAD mainly affects the endocrine system and autonomic nervous system, but patients can exhibit a variety of signs. Patients present with both alveolar hypoventilation along with hypothalamic dysfunction, which distinguishes ROHHAD from congenital central hypoventilation syndrome (CCHS). ROHHAD is a rare disease, with only 100 reported cases worldwide thus far.
Hypergonadotropic hypogonadism (HH), also known as primary or peripheral/gonadal hypogonadism or primary gonadal failure, is a condition which is characterized by hypogonadism which is due to an impaired response of the gonads to the gonadotropins, follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH), and in turn a lack of sex steroid production. As compensation and the lack of negative feedback, gonadotropin levels are elevated. Individuals with HH have an intact and functioning hypothalamus and pituitary glands so they are still able to produce FSH and LH. HH may present as either congenital or acquired, but the majority of cases are of the former nature. HH can be treated with hormone replacement therapy.
Obesity is defined as an abnormal accumulation of body fat, usually 20% or more over an individual's ideal body weight. This is often described as a body mass index (BMI) over 30. However, BMI does not account for whether the excess weight is fat or muscle, and is not a measure of body composition. For most people, however, BMI is an indication used worldwide to estimate nutritional status. Obesity is usually the result of consuming more calories than the body needs and not expending that energy by doing exercise. There are genetic causes and hormonal disorders that cause people to gain significant amounts of weight but this is rare. People in the obese category are much more likely to suffer from fertility problems than people of normal healthy weight.
Late onset congenital adrenal hyperplasia (LOCAH), also known as nonclassic congenital adrenal hyperplasia, is a milder form of congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH), a group of autosomal recessive disorders characterized by impaired cortisol synthesis that leads to variable degrees of postnatal androgen excess.
References
- ↑ Dimitri, Paul (6 April 2022). "Treatment of Acquired Hypothalamic Obesity: Now and the Future". Frontiers in Endocrinology. 13: 846880. doi: 10.3389/fendo.2022.846880 . ISSN 1664-2392. PMC 9019363 . PMID 35464063.
- ↑ Bereket, A.; Kiess, W.; Lustig, R. H.; Muller, H. L.; Goldstone, A. P.; Weiss, R.; Yavuz, Y.; Hochberg, Z. (September 2012). "Hypothalamic obesity in children". Obesity Reviews. 13 (9): 780–798. doi:10.1111/j.1467-789X.2012.01004.x. PMID 22577758. S2CID 9550333.
- ↑ Abuzzahab, M. Jennifer; Roth, Christian L.; Shoemaker, Ashley H. (2019). "Hypothalamic Obesity: Prologue and Promise". Hormone Research in Paediatrics. 91 (2): 128–136. doi: 10.1159/000496564 . PMID 30884480. S2CID 83460590.
- ↑ Kim, Ja Hye; Choi, Jin-Ho (December 2013). "Pathophysiology and clinical characteristics of hypothalamic obesity in children and adolescents". Annals of Pediatric Endocrinology & Metabolism. 18 (4): 161–167. doi:10.6065/apem.2013.18.4.161. ISSN 2287-1012. PMC 4027083 . PMID 24904871.