Intermittent water supply

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A piped water supply and distribution system is intermittent when water continuity is for less than 24 hours a day or not on all days of the week. [1] [2] During this continuity defining factors are water pressure and equity. [3] [4] At least 45 countries have intermittent water supply (IWS) systems. [5] It is contrasted with a continuous or "24/7" water supply, the service standard. [6] [7] No system is intentionally designed to be intermittent, but they may become that way because of system overexpansion, leakage and other factors. [8] [9] As of 2022, there was no feasible method for modelling IWS, including no computer-aided tools. [1] Contamination issues can be associated with an intermittent water distribution system. [10] Global public health impact includes millions of cases of infections and diarrhea, and 1560 deaths annually. [11]

Contents

A continuous supply is not practical in all situations. [3] In the short term, an IWS may have some benefits. [12] These may include addressing demand with a limited supply in a more economical manner. [13] An intermittent supply may be temporary (e.g., when water reserves are low) or permanent (e.g., where the piped system cannot sustain a continuous supply). [6] Associated factors resulting from an intermittent supply include water extraction by users at the same time, resulting in low pressure and a possible higher peak demand. [14]

Prevalence

A large share of water supply systems around the world are intermittent; in other words, intermittent water supply is a norm. [15] [16] About 1.3 billion people have a piped supply that is intermittent, including large populations in Africa, Asia, and Latin America. [1] [14] This does not include those who do not get piped water at all, about 2.7 billion people. [1] Countries with intermittent supply in some areas and continuous supply in others include India [17] and South Africa. [18] In India, various cities are at various stages of constructing 24/7 supply systems, such as Chandigarh, [19] Delhi, [20] Shimla, [21] and Coimbatore. [22] In Cambodia, Phnom Penh increased coverage from 25% to 85% and duration from 10 to 24 hours a day between 1993 and 2004. [23]

Storage

Installation of storage and pumps at residences may offset the intermittency of the water supply. [6] Roof tanks are a common feature in countries where the water supply is intermittent. [24] In Jordan, most houses have one or more ground or roof tanks. An intermittent supply can be supplemented with other non-piped sources such as packaged drinking and cooking water bought from local shops or delivered to the house. [25]

See also

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References

Bibliography
Citations
  1. 1 2 3 4 Sarisen, Dondu; Koukoravas, Vasilis; Farmani, Raziyeh; Kapelan, Zoran; Memon, Fayyaz Ali (1 December 2022). "Review of hydraulic modelling approaches for intermittent water supply systems". Journal of Water Supply: Research and Technology-Aqua. 71 (12): 1291–1310. doi:10.2166/aqua.2022.028. hdl: 10871/132852 . ISSN   0003-7214. S2CID   253616080. Open Access logo PLoS transparent.svg (Open access)
  2. ↑ Taylor 2018, p. 25, 32.
  3. 1 2 Vairavamoorthy, Kala; Elango, K. (2002). "Guidelines for the design and control of intermittent water distribution systems" (PDF). Waterlines. 21 (1): 19–21. doi:10.3362/0262-8104.2002.041 – via IRCWash. Lock-green.svg (Free to read)
  4. ↑ Nishimura, Érica; Roma, Woodrow (2018). "The lack of standard definition for intermittent water supply system: An overview of definitions used in the literature and by Brazilian Regulatory Agencies". Revista de Gestão de Água da América Latina. 15 (1): 9. doi: 10.21168/rega.v15e9 . S2CID   194318870. Lock-green.svg (Free to read)
  5. ↑ Kumpel 2013, p. 1. cited to : van den Berg, C. and A. Danilenko (2011). The IBNET Water Supply and Sanitation Performance Blue Book: The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities Databook. Washington, DC: World Bank.
  6. 1 2 3 Laspidou, Chrysi; Spyropoulou, Alexandra; Charalambous, Bambos (2017). "1". In Charalambous, Bambos; Laspidou, Chrysi (eds.). Dealing with the Complex Interrelation of Intermittent Supply and Water Losses . Scientific and Technical Report No. 25. IWA Publishing. pp. xxv, 1–3. ISBN   978-1-78040-706-7 – via Google Books. Lock-gray-alt-2.svg (Limited pages accessible, free registration required for complete access.)
  7. ↑ Ray, I.; Billava, N.; Burt, Z.; Colford, J. M.; Ercümen, A.; Jayaramu, K. P.; Kumpel, E.; Nayak, N.; Nelson, K.; Woelfle-Erskine, C. (2018). "From Intermittent to Continuous Water Supply A Household-level Evaluation of Water System Reforms in Hubli–Dharwad". Economic and Political Weekly. 53 (49): 39–48. ISSN   0012-9976 – via eScholarship, University of California. Open Access logo PLoS transparent.svg (Open access)
  8. ↑ Kumpel 2013, p. 7. To our knowledge, no systems have been intentionally designed to provide intermittent supply ... the system became limited by excessive leakages and/or unchecked network expansion.
  9. ↑ McIntosh, Arthur C. (2014). Urban Water Supply and Sanitation in Southeast Asia. A Guide to Good Practice (PDF). Philippines: Asian Development Bank. p. 37. ISBN   978-92-9254-555-0. The primary cause of intermittent water supply is the extension of distribution systems beyond their hydraulic capacity to provide service to more customers. Lock-green.svg (Free to read)
  10. ↑ Dubasik, Frank B. (2017). Planning for intermittent water supply in small gravity-fed distribution systems: Case study in rural Panama (Master of Science in Environmental Engineering thesis). Houghton, Michigan: Michigan Technological University. doi: 10.37099/mtu.dc.etdr/498 . pp. 3. Lock-green.svg (Free to read)
  11. ↑ Taylor 2018, p. 24. cited to Bivins, Aaron W.; Sumner, Trent; Kumpel, Emily; Howard, Guy; Cumming, Oliver; Ross, Ian; Nelson, Kara; Brown, Joe (2017). "Estimating Infection Risks and the Global Burden of Diarrheal Disease Attributable to Intermittent Water Supply Using QMRA". Environmental Science & Technology. 51 (13): 7542–7551. Bibcode:2017EnST...51.7542B. doi:10.1021/acs.est.7b01014. hdl: 1983/bcbdf2db-44bb-40b6-93e5-a123d10566c4 . ISSN   0013-936X. PMID   28582618. S2CID   206568606.
  12. ↑ Irving, Tyler (9 July 2019). "U of T researcher proposes new model to analyze world's 'intermittent' water systems". University of Toronto News. Retrieved 5 January 2023. Open Access logo PLoS transparent.svg (Open access)
  13. ↑ Tong, Yan; Fan, Liangxin; Niu, Haipeng (2022). "Identification of pathways that lead to continuous or intermittent water supply by conducting a qualitative comparative analysis of rural water utilities in China". Journal of Water Supply: Research and Technology-Aqua. 71 (7): 801–815. doi: 10.2166/aqua.2022.052 . ISSN   0003-7214. S2CID   250394031. Open Access logo PLoS transparent.svg (Open access)
  14. 1 2 Loubser, Carlo; Basson, Suzanne Esther; Jacobs, Heinz Erasmus (2020). "A conceptual index for benchmarking intermittent water supply in a water distribution system zone". Water SA. 46 (1 January): 12, 15. doi:10.17159/wsa/2020.v46.i1.7873. hdl: 10019.1/124436 . ISSN   1816-7950. S2CID   213294175.
  15. ↑ Mohan, S; Abhijith, GR (22 February 2021). Hayward, Keith (ed.). "Intermittent water supply interventions for India's cities". The Source. Retrieved 2 January 2023.
  16. ↑ Andey, Subhash P; Kelkar, Prakash S. (2007). "Performance of water distribution systems during intermittent versus continuous water supply" . Journal (American Water Works Association). 99 (8): 99–106. Bibcode:2007JAWWA..99h..99A. doi:10.1002/j.1551-8833.2007.tb08011.x. ISSN   0003-150X. JSTOR   41312830. S2CID   116175326 – via JSTOR.
  17. ↑ Vairavamoorthy, Kala (22 February 2021). Hayward, Keith (ed.). "Closing the SDG access gap – the challenge of intermittent supply". The Source. Retrieved 9 January 2023.
  18. ↑ Loubser, Carlo; Chimbanga, Bubala Mwiinga; Jacobs, Heinz (January 2021). "Intermittent water supply: a South African perspective". Water SA. 47 (1 January). doi: 10.17159/wsa/2021.v47.i1.9440 . ISSN   1816-7950. S2CID   234071186.
  19. ↑ "24x7 water supply in Chandigarh: MoU signed with French loaning agency". Hindustan Times. 15 September 2022. Retrieved 9 January 2023.
  20. ↑ "Delhi divided into three zones for 24X7 water supply project". Business Standard. Press Trust of India. 5 September 2021. Retrieved 9 January 2023.
  21. ↑ "Shimla to get 24X7 water supply by 2025". The Tribune India. 8 October 2022. Retrieved 9 January 2023.
  22. ↑ Raj, Aravind (2 January 2023). "Coimbatore: 24x7 water supply project to drag on till '25". The New Indian Express. Retrieved 9 January 2023.
  23. ↑ Seetharam, K. E.; Bridges, Geoffrey (2005). "Helping India Achieve 24x7 Water Supply Service by 2010" (PDF). Asian Development Bank. Water Sector Technical Note # 1.
  24. ↑ Hernandez-Lopez, R. D.; Tzatchkov, V. G.; Martin-Dominguez, A.; Alcocer-Yamanaka, V. H. (2016). "Study of hydraulics and mixing in roof tanks used in intermittent water supply". Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development. 6 (4): 547–554. doi: 10.2166/washdev.2016.147 . ISSN   2043-9083.
  25. ↑ Rosenberg, David E.; Talozi, Samer; Lund, Jay R. (2008). "Intermittent water supplies: challenges and opportunities for residential water users in Jordan". Water International. 33 (4): 488–504. Bibcode:2008WatIn..33..488R. doi:10.1080/02508060802474574. ISSN   0250-8060. S2CID   153670339.

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