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Endocytosis is a cellular process in which substances are brought into the cell. The material to be internalized is surrounded by an area of cell membrane, which then buds off inside the cell to form a vesicle containing the ingested material. Endocytosis includes pinocytosis and phagocytosis. It is a form of active transport.
A vacuole is a membrane-bound organelle which is present in plant and fungal cells and some protist, animal, and bacterial cells. Vacuoles are essentially enclosed compartments which are filled with water containing inorganic and organic molecules including enzymes in solution, though in certain cases they may contain solids which have been engulfed. Vacuoles are formed by the fusion of multiple membrane vesicles and are effectively just larger forms of these. The organelle has no basic shape or size; its structure varies according to the requirements of the cell.
In cell biology, a vesicle is a structure within or outside a cell, consisting of liquid or cytoplasm enclosed by a lipid bilayer. Vesicles form naturally during the processes of secretion (exocytosis), uptake (endocytosis) and transport of materials within the plasma membrane. Alternatively, they may be prepared artificially, in which case they are called liposomes. If there is only one phospholipid bilayer, they are called unilamellar liposome vesicles; otherwise they are called multilamellar. The membrane enclosing the vesicle is also a lamellar phase, similar to that of the plasma membrane, and intracellular vesicles can fuse with the plasma membrane to release their contents outside the cell. Vesicles can also fuse with other organelles within the cell. A vesicle released from the cell is known as an extracellular vesicle.
Exocytosis is a form of active transport and bulk transport in which a cell transports molecules out of the cell. As an active transport mechanism, exocytosis requires the use of energy to transport material. Exocytosis and its counterpart, endocytosis, are used by all cells because most chemical substances important to them are large polar molecules that cannot pass through the hydrophobic portion of the cell membrane by passive means. Exocytosis is the process by which a large amount of molecules are released; thus it is a form of bulk transport. Exocytosis occurs via secretory portals at the cell plasma membrane called porosomes. Porosomes are permanent cup-shaped lipoprotein structure at the cell plasma membrane, where secretory vesicles transiently dock and fuse to release intra-vesicular contents from the cell.
Microparticles are particles between 0.1 and 100 μm in size. Commercially available microparticles are available in a wide variety of materials, including ceramics, glass, polymers, and metals. Microparticles encountered in daily life include pollen, sand, dust, flour, and powdered sugar.
Exosomes are membrane-bound extracellular vesicles (EVs) that are produced in the endosomal compartment of most eukaryotic cells. The multivesicular body (MVB) is an endosome with intraluminal vesicles (ILVs) that bud inward into the endosomal lumen. If the MVB fuses with the cell surface, these ILVs are released as exosomes.
Microvesicles are a type of extracellular vesicle (EV) that are released from the cell membrane. In multicellular organisms, microvesicles and other EVs are found both in tissues and in many types of body fluids. Delimited by a phospholipid bilayer, microvesicles can be as small as the smallest EVs or as large as 1000 nm. They are considered to be larger, on average, than intracellularly-generated EVs known as exosomes. Microvesicles play a role in intercellular communication and can transport molecules such as mRNA, miRNA, and proteins between cells.
CD63 antigen is a protein that, in humans, is encoded by the CD63 gene. CD63 is mainly associated with membranes of intracellular vesicles, although cell surface expression may be induced.
Ibudilast is an anti-inflammatory drug used mainly in Japan, which acts as a phosphodiesterase inhibitor, inhibiting the PDE4 subtype to the greatest extent, but also showing significant inhibition of other PDE subtypes.
Jan Lötvall is a Swedish clinical allergist and scientist working on translational research primarily in the field of asthma. He is the former director of the Krefting Research Centre at the University of Gothenburg.
The cell membrane is a biological membrane that separates the interior of all cells from the outside environment and protects the cell from its environment. The cell membrane consists of a lipid bilayer, made up of two layers of phospholipids with cholesterols interspersed between them, maintaining appropriate membrane fluidity at various temperatures. The membrane also contains membrane proteins, including integral proteins that span the membrane and serve as membrane transporters, and peripheral proteins that loosely attach to the outer (peripheral) side of the cell membrane, acting as enzymes to facilitate interaction with the cell's environment. Glycolipids embedded in the outer lipid layer serve a similar purpose. The cell membrane controls the movement of substances in and out of cells and organelles, being selectively permeable to ions and organic molecules. In addition, cell membranes are involved in a variety of cellular processes such as cell adhesion, ion conductivity and cell signalling and serve as the attachment surface for several extracellular structures, including the cell wall and the carbohydrate layer called the glycocalyx, as well as the intracellular network of protein fibers called the cytoskeleton. In the field of synthetic biology, cell membranes can be artificially reassembled.
Extracellular RNA (exRNA) describes RNA species present outside of the cells in which they were transcribed. Carried within extracellular vesicles, lipoproteins, and protein complexes, exRNAs are protected from ubiquitous RNA-degrading enzymes. exRNAs may be found in the environment or, in multicellular organisms, within the tissues or biological fluids such as venous blood, saliva, breast milk, urine, semen, menstrual blood, and vaginal fluid. Although their biological function is not fully understood, exRNAs have been proposed to play a role in a variety of biological processes including syntrophy, intercellular communication, and cell regulation. The United States National Institutes of Health (NIH) published in 2012 a set of Requests for Applications (RFAs) for investigating extracellular RNA biology. Funded by the NIH Common Fund, the resulting program was collectively known as the Extracellular RNA Communication Consortium (ERCC). The ERCC was renewed for a second phase in 2019.
The secretome is the set of proteins expressed by an organism and secreted into the extracellular space. In humans, this subset of the proteome encompasses 13-20% of all proteins, including cytokines, growth factors, extracellular matrix proteins and regulators, and shed receptors. The secretome of a specific tissue can be measured by mass spectrometry and its analysis constitutes a type of proteomics known as secretomics.
Membrane vesicle trafficking in eukaryotic animal cells involves movement of biochemical signal molecules from synthesis-and-packaging locations in the Golgi body to specific release locations on the inside of the plasma membrane of the secretory cell. It takes place in the form of Golgi membrane-bound micro-sized vesicles, termed membrane vesicles (MVs).
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are lipid bilayer-delimited particles that are naturally released from almost all types of cell and, unlike a cell, cannot replicate. EVs range in diameter from near the size of the smallest physically possible unilamellar liposome to as large as 10 microns or more, although the vast majority of EVs are smaller than 200 nm. EVs can be divided according to size and synthesis route into Exosomes, microvesicles and apoptotic bodies. They carry a cargo of proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, metabolites, and even organelles from the parent cell. Most cells that have been studied to date are thought to release EVs, including some archaeal, bacterial, fungal, and plant cells that are surrounded by cell walls. A wide variety of EV subtypes have been proposed, defined variously by size, biogenesis pathway, cargo, cellular source, and function, leading to a historically heterogenous nomenclature including terms like exosomes and ectosomes.
The stem cell secretome is a collective term for the paracrine soluble factors produced by stem cells and utilized for their inter-cell communication. In addition to inter-cell communication, the paracrine factors are also responsible for tissue development, homeostasis and (re-)generation. The stem cell secretome consists of extracellular vesicles, specifically exosomes, microvesicles, membrane particles, peptides and small proteins (cytokines). The paracrine activity of stem cells, i.e. the stem cell secretome, has been found to be the predominant mechanism by which stem cell-based therapies mediate their effects in degenerative, auto-immune and/or inflammatory diseases. Though not only stem cells possess a secretome which influences their cellular environment, their secretome currently appears to be the most relevant for therapeutic use.
The Journal of Extracellular Vesicles is a peer-reviewed open-access scientific journal covering research on lipid bilayer-delimited particles known as extracellular vesicles (EVs). EVs are released from cells and include endosome-origin exosomes and plasma membrane-derived ectosomes/microvesicles. The journal is helmed by editor-in-chief Jan Lötvall and is published by Wiley on behalf of the International Society for Extracellular Vesicles (ISEV). It was established in 2012. Until August 2019, the editors-in-chief were Clotilde Théry, Yong Song Gho, and Peter Quesenberry. They were succeeded by Jan Lötvall.
Clotilde Théry is a professor and INSERM director of research (DR2) at Institut Curie in Paris, France. She is president of the International Society for Extracellular Vesicles (ISEV), where she previously served as founding secretary general and as editor-in-chief of the Journal of Extracellular Vesicles. She is team leader of the group "Extracellular Vesicles, Immune Responses and Cancer" within the INSERM Unit 932 on "Immunity and Cancer." Théry researches extracellular vesicles that are released by immune and tumor cells, including exosomes that originate in the multivesicular body.
Kenneth W. Witwer is an associate professor of molecular and comparative pathobiology and neurology at the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine in Baltimore, Maryland, United States. As nominated President-Elect of the International Society for Extracellular Vesicles (ISEV), Witwer previously served as Secretary General and Executive Chair of Science and Meetings of the society. His laboratory studies extracellular vesicles (EVs), noncoding and extracellular RNA (exRNA), and enveloped viruses, including HIV and SARS-CoV-2. Witwer is a member of the Richman Family Precision Medicine Center of Excellence in Alzheimer's Disease, has advised the US Environmental Protection Agency and the US National Institutes of Health, and is an associate editor of the Journal of Extracellular Vesicles.
Exophers are a type of membrane-bound extracellular vesicle (EV) that are released by budding out of cells into the extracellular space. Exophers can be released by neurons and muscle in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans and also from murine cardiomyocytes. Exophers are notable for their large size, averaging approximately four microns in diameter, and they are able to expel whole organelles, such as mitochondria and lysosomes as cargo. An exopher can initially remain attached to the cell that produced it by a membranous filament that resembles a tunneling nanotube. Exophers share similarities with large oncosomes, but they differ in that they are produced by physiologically normal cells instead of aberrant cells associated with tumors.
References
- ↑ "Better living through mitochondrial derived vesicles". MedicalXpress.
- 1 2 Hill AF, Sahoo S (March 2022). "Launching the Journal of Extracellular Biology (J Ex Bio) – A new journal from the International Society for Extracellular Vesicles (ISEV)". Journal of Extracellular Biology. 1 (1). e19. doi:10.1002/jex2.19. S2CID 247483494.
- ↑ "RNA Workshop". Archived from the original on 2014-05-30. Retrieved 2014-04-29.
- 1 2 Witwer, K. W.; Buzás, E.I.; Bemis, L.T.; Bora, A.; Lässer, C.; Lötvall, J.; Nolte-'t Hoen, E.N.; Piper, M.G.; Sivaraman, S.; Skog, J.; Théry, C.; Wauben, M.H.; Hochberg, F. (2013). "Standardization of sample collection, isolation and analysis methods in extracellular vesicle research". Journal of Extracellular Vesicles. 2: 20360. doi:10.3402/jev.v2i0.20360. PMC 3760646 . PMID 24009894.
- 1 2 Hill, A.F.; Pegtel, D.M.; Lambertz, U.; Leonardi, T.; O'Driscoll, L.; Pluchino, S.; Ter-Ovanesyan, D.; Nolte-'t Hoen, E.N. (2013). "ISEV position paper: Extracellular vesicle RNA analysis and bioinformatics". Journal of Extracellular Vesicles. 2: 22859. doi:10.3402/jev.v2i0.22859. PMC 3873759 . PMID 24376909.
- ↑ "International Society for Extracellular Vesicles Launches EV Club". WFMZ-TV News Allentown. Retrieved 22 April 2021.
- ↑ "Scientific Conferences on Biomedical and Life Science Topics". Keystone Symposia.
- ↑ "2016 Extracellular Vesicles Conference GRC". Gordon Research Conferences.
- ↑ "CSH Asia 2016 Conference on Biology & Function of Extracellular Vesicles: Exosomes, Microvesicles & Beyond". Cold Spring Harbor Asia.
- ↑ "Journal information". Journal of Extracellular Vesicles.
- ↑ Lötvall, J.; Hill, A.F.; Hochberg, F.; Buzás, E.I.; Di Vizio, D.; Gardiner, C.; Gho, Y.S.; Kurochkin, I.V.; Mathivanan, S.; Quesenberry, P.; Sahoo, S.; Tahara, H.; Wauben, M.H.; Witwer, K.W.; Théry, C. (2014). "Minimal experimental requirements for definition of extracellular vesicles and their functions: A position statement from the International Society for Extracellular Vesicles". Journal of Extracellular Vesicles. 3: 26913. doi:10.3402/jev.v3.26913. PMC 4275645 . PMID 25536934.
- ↑ "Enhanced Analysis of Extracellular Vesicles with Imaging Flow Cytometry". Archived from the original on 2015-12-08. Retrieved 2015-11-28.
- ↑ Witwer, Kenneth W.; Soekmadji, Carolina; Hill, Andrew F.; Wauben, Marca H.; Buzás, Edit I.; Di Vizio, Dolores; Falcon-Perez, Juan M.; Gardiner, Chris; Hochberg, Fred; Kurochkin, Igor V.; Lötvall, Jan; Mathivanan, Suresh; Nieuwland, Rienk; Sahoo, Susmita; Tahara, Hidetoshi; Torrecilhas, Ana Claudia; Weaver, Alissa M.; Yin, Hang; Zheng, Lei; Gho, Yong Song; Quesenberry, Peter; Théry, Clotilde (2017). "Updating the MISEV minimal requirements for extracellular vesicle studies: building bridges to reproducibility". Journal of Extracellular Vesicles. 6 (1): 1396823. doi:10.1080/20013078.2017.1396823. ISSN 2001-3078. PMC 5698937 . PMID 29184626.
- ↑ Théry, C. (2018). "Minimal information for studies of extracellular vesicles 2018 (MISEV2018): a position statement of the International Society for Extracellular Vesicles and update of the MISEV2014 guidelines". Journal of Extracellular Vesicles. 7 (1): 1535750. doi:10.1080/20013078.2018.1535750. PMC 6322352 . PMID 30637094.
- ↑ "Journal of Extracellular Biology (Wiley)".
- ↑ "Basics of Extracellular Vesicles". Coursera.
- ↑ "Extracellular Vesicles in Health and Disease".
- ↑ "Well-Attended Two-Track Education Day Precedes Opening of International Society for Extracellular Vesicles (ISEV 2016) Annual Meeting in Rotterdam May 4-7". BioQuick News.com (Press release). 3 May 2016.
