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In ordinary language,a crime is an unlawful act punishable by a state or other authority. The term crime does not,in modern criminal law,have any simple and universally accepted definition,though statutory definitions have been provided for certain purposes. The most popular view is that crime is a category created by law;in other words,something is a crime if declared as such by the relevant and applicable law. One proposed definition is that a crime or offence is an act harmful not only to some individual but also to a community,society,or the state. Such acts are forbidden and punishable by law.
Organized crime is a category of transnational,national,or local group of centralized enterprises run to engage in illegal activity,most commonly for profit. While organized crime is generally thought of as a form of illegal business,some criminal organizations,such as terrorist groups,rebel forces,and separatists,are politically motivated. Many criminal organizations rely on fear or terror to achieve their goals or aims as well as to maintain control within the organization and may adopt tactics commonly used by authoritarian regimes to maintain power. Some forms of organized crime simply exist to cater towards demand of illegal goods in a state or to facilitate trade of goods and services that may have been banned by a state. Sometimes,criminal organizations force people to do business with them,such as when a gang extorts protection money from shopkeepers. Street gangs may often be deemed organized crime groups or,under stricter definitions of organized crime,may become disciplined enough to be considered organized. A criminal organization can also be referred to as an outfit,a gang,crime family,mafia,mob,(crime) ring,or syndicate;the network,subculture,and community of criminals involved in organized crime may be referred to as the underworld or gangland. Sociologists sometimes specifically distinguish a "mafia" as a type of organized crime group that specializes in the supply of extra-legal protection and quasi-law enforcement. Academic studies of the original "Mafia",the Italian Mafia,as well as its American counterpart,generated an economic study of organized crime groups and exerted great influence on studies of the Russian mafia,the Chinese triads,the Hong Kong triads,and the Japanese yakuza.
Victimology is the study of victimization,including the psychological effects on victims,the relationship between victims and offenders,the interactions between victims and the criminal justice system—that is,the police and courts,and corrections officials—and the connections between victims and other social groups and institutions,such as the media,businesses,and social movements.
A moral panic is a widespread feeling of fear that some evil person or thing threatens the values,interests,or well-being of a community or society. It is "the process of arousing social concern over an issue",usually perpetuated by moral entrepreneurs and mass media coverage,and exacerbated by politicians and lawmakers. Moral panic can give rise to new laws aimed at controlling the community.
Articles related to criminology and law enforcement.
Like rational choice theory,conflict theory,or functionalism,pure sociology is a sociological paradigm —a strategy for explaining human behavior. Developed by Donald Black as an alternative to individualistic and social-psychological theories,pure sociology was initially used to explain variation in legal behavior. Since then,Black and other pure sociologists have used the strategy to explain terrorism,genocide,lynching,and other forms of conflict management as well as science,art,and religion.
In the United States,the relationship between race and crime has been a topic of public controversy and scholarly debate for more than a century. Crime rates vary significantly between racial groups;however,academic research indicates that the over-representation of some racial minorities in the criminal justice system can in part be explained by socioeconomic factors,such as poverty,exposure to poor neighborhoods,poor access to public and early education,and exposure to harmful chemicals and pollution. Racial housing segregation has also been linked to racial disparities in crime rates,as black Americans have historically and to the present been prevented from moving into prosperous low-crime areas through actions of the government and private actors. Various explanations within criminology have been proposed for racial disparities in crime rates,including conflict theory,strain theory,general strain theory,social disorganization theory,macrostructural opportunity theory,social control theory,and subcultural theory.
Marxist criminology is one of the schools of criminology. It parallels the work of the structural functionalism school which focuses on what produces stability and continuity in society but,unlike the functionalists,it adopts a predefined political philosophy. As in conflict criminology,it focuses on why things change,identifying the disruptive forces in industrialized societies,and describing how society is divided by power,wealth,prestige,and the perceptions of the world. It is concerned with the causal relationships between society and crime,i.e. to establish a critical understanding of how the immediate and structural social environment gives rise to crime and criminogenic conditions. William Chambliss and Robert Seidman explain that "the shape and character of the legal system in complex societies can be understood as deriving from the conflicts inherent in the structure of these societies which are stratified economically and politically".
The feminist school of criminology is a school of criminology developed in the late 1960s and into the 1970s as a reaction to the general disregard and discrimination of women in the traditional study of crime. It is the view of the feminist school of criminology that a majority of criminological theories were developed through studies on male subjects and focused on male criminality,and that criminologists often would "add women and stir" rather than develop separate theories on female criminality.
In the fields of sociology and criminology,strain theory is a theoretical perspective that aims to explain the relationship between social structure,social values or goals,and crime. Strain theory was originally introduced by Robert King Merton (1938),and argues that society's dominant cultural values and social structure causes strain,which may encourage citizens to commit crimes. Following on the work of Émile Durkheim's theory of anomie, strain theory has been advanced by Robert King Merton (1938),Albert K. Cohen (1955),Richard Cloward,Lloyd Ohlin (1960),Neil Smelser (1963),Robert Agnew (1992),Steven Messner,Richard Rosenfeld (1994) and Jie Zhang (2012).
Sociology of terrorism is a field of sociology that seeks to understand terrorism as a social phenomenon. The field defines terrorism,studies why it occurs and evaluates its impacts on society. The sociology of terrorism draws from the fields of political science,history,economics and psychology. The sociology of terrorism differs from critical terrorism studies,emphasizing the social conditions that enable terrorism. It also studies how individuals as well as states respond to such events.
Routine activity theory is a sub-field of crime opportunity theory that focuses on situations of crimes. It was first proposed by Marcus Felson and Lawrence E. Cohen in their explanation of crime rate changes in the United States between 1947 and 1974. The theory has been extensively applied and has become one of the most cited theories in criminology. Unlike criminological theories of criminality,routine activity theory studies crime as an event,closely relates crime to its environment and emphasizes its ecological process,thereby diverting academic attention away from mere offenders.
Ronald Weitzer is an American sociologist specializing in criminology and a professor at George Washington University,known for his publications on police-minority relations and on the sex industry.
Jock Young was a British sociologist and an influential criminologist.
Deviance or the sociology of deviance explores the actions or behaviors that violate social norms across formally enacted rules as well as informal violations of social norms. Although deviance may have a negative connotation,the violation of social norms is not always a negative action;positive deviation exists in some situations. Although a norm is violated,a behavior can still be classified as positive or acceptable.
Victimisation is the state or process of being victimised or becoming a victim. The field that studies the process,rates,incidence,effects,and prevalence of victimisation is called victimology.
Criminology is the interdisciplinary study of crime and deviant behaviour. Criminology is a multidisciplinary field in both the behavioural and social sciences,which draws primarily upon the research of sociologists,political scientists,economists,legal sociologists,psychologists,philosophers,psychiatrists,social workers,biologists,social anthropologists,scholars of law and jurisprudence,as well as the processes that define administration of justice and the criminal justice system.
The feminist pathways perspective is a feminist perspective of criminology which suggests victimization throughout the life course is a key risk factor for women's entry into offending.
James Densley is a British-American sociologist and Professor of Criminal Justice at Metropolitan State University. He is best known as co-founder of The Violence Project and as co-author of the bestselling book,The Violence Project:How To Stop a Mass Shooting Epidemic. Densley has also published extensively on street gang issues and has been described as "among the most accomplished rising leaders of modern gang research in criminology." He was one of the top 250 most cited criminologists in the world in 2019.
Roderic Broadhurst is a criminal justice practitioner,academic,and author. He is an Emeritus Professor at the School of Regulation and Global Governance (RegNet) and Fellow of the Research School of Asian and the Pacific at the Australian National University (ANU).
References
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- ↑ "The causes and consequences of group violence : from bullies to terrorists – SQU".
- ↑ "Marijuana in America: Culture, Political, and Medical Controversies – CUHK".
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- 1 2 "Honorary Doctors". www.utu.fi.
- ↑ "Legitimacy, Trust, Social Capital, and Policing Styles".
- ↑ Hawdon, James E.; Ryan, John; Griffin, Sean P. (2003). "Policing Tactics and Perceptions of Police Legitimacy". Police Quarterly . 6 (4): 469–491. doi:10.1177/1098611103253503. S2CID 144947607 – via Academia.edu.
- ↑ Hawdon, James; Ryan, John (2009). "Social Capital, Social Control, and Changes in Victimization Rates". Crime & Delinquency. 55 (4): 526–549. doi:10.1177/0011128708325421. S2CID 146546619.
- ↑ Vuori, M.; Hawdon, J.; Atte, Oksanen; Räsänen, P. (November 1, 2013). "Collective Crime as a Source of Social Solidarity: A Tentative Test of a Functional Model for Responses to Mass Violence". S2CID 59405854.
{{cite web}}: Missing or empty|url=(help) - ↑ Hawdon, James; Ryan, John (November 2010). "Crime as a Source of Solidarity". Deviant Behavior . 31: 679–703. doi:10.1080/01639620903415901. S2CID 54659505.
- ↑ Hawdon, J.; Ryan, J. (June 2011). "Social Relations that Generate and Sustain Solidarity after a Mass Tragedy". Social Forces . 89 (4): 1363–1384. doi:10.1093/sf/89.4.1363 – via Academia.edu.
- ↑ "Collective Crime as a Source of Social Solidarity: A Tentative Test of a Functional Model for Responses to Mass Violence". S2CID 59405854.
{{cite web}}: Missing or empty|url=(help) - ↑ Hawdon, James; Rasanen, Pekka; Oksanen, Atte; Vuori, Miika (January 8, 2014). "Social responses to collective crime: Assessing the relationship between crime-related fears and collective sentiments". European Journal of Criminology. 11 (1): 39–56. doi:10.1177/1477370813485516. S2CID 144815046 – via CrossRef.
- 1 2 Hawdon, James; Costello, Matthew; Barrett-Fox, Rebecca; Bernatzky, Colin (September 25, 2019). "The Perpetuation of Online Hate: A Criminological Analysis of Factors Associated with Participating in an Online Attack". Journal of Hate Studies. 15 (1): 157–181. doi: 10.33972/jhs.166 .
- ↑ "Utilizing criminological theories to predict involvement in cyberviolence among the iGeneration: Sociological Spectrum: Vol 42, No 4-6". doi:10.1080/02732173.2022.2105767. S2CID 251356841.
- ↑ Dearden, Thomas E.; Parti, Katalin; Hawdon, James (August 8, 2021). "Institutional Anomie Theory and Cybercrime—Cybercrime and the American Dream, Now Available Online". Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice. 37 (3): 311–332. doi:10.1177/10439862211001590. hdl: 10919/106371 . S2CID 233638560 – via CrossRef.
- ↑ Hawdon, James (December 1, 2021). "Cybercrime: Victimization, Perpetration, and Techniques". American Journal of Criminal Justice. 46 (6): 837–842. doi:10.1007/s12103-021-09652-7. PMC 8579169 . PMID 34776725 – via Springer Link.
- ↑ "Cybercrime victimization among Virginia businesses: frequency, vulnerabilities, and consequences of cybervictimization: Criminal Justice Studies: Vol 0, No 0". doi:10.1080/1478601X.2023.2254096. hdl:10919/116199. S2CID 261546500.
- ↑ Dearden, Thomas E.; Parti, Katalin; Hawdon, James; Gainey, Randy; Vandecar-Burdin, Tancy; Albanese, Jay (August 1, 2023). "Differentiating Insider and Outsider Cyberattacks on Businesses". American Journal of Criminal Justice. 48 (4): 871–886. doi:10.1007/s12103-023-09727-7. S2CID 260394757 – via Springer Link.
- ↑ "Victims of Online Groups: American Youth's Exposure to Online Hate Speech".
- ↑ "Online Extremism and Online Hate – Nordicom" (PDF).
- ↑ "Exposure to Online Hate among Young Social Media Users".
- ↑ Näsi, Matti; Räsänen, Pekka; Hawdon, James; Holkeri, Emma; Oksanen, Atte (January 1, 2015). "Exposure to online hate material and social trust among Finnish youth". Information Technology & People. 28 (3): 607–622. doi:10.1108/ITP-09-2014-0198 – via Emerald Insight.
- ↑ Räsänen, Pekka; Hawdon, James; Holkeri, Emma; Keipi, Teo; Näsi, Matti; Oksanen, Atte (September 8, 2016). "Targets of Online Hate: Examining Determinants of Victimization Among Young Finnish Facebook Users". Violence and Victims. 31 (4): 708–726. doi:10.1891/0886-6708.VV-D-14-00079. PMID 27302929. S2CID 44766893 – via PubMed.
- ↑ Hawdon, James; Oksanen, Atte; Räsänen, Pekka (March 4, 2017). "Exposure to Online Hate in Four Nations: A Cross-National Consideration". Deviant Behavior. 38 (3): 254–266. doi:10.1080/01639625.2016.1196985. S2CID 148558539 – via CrossRef.
- ↑ "We don't like your type around here: Regional and residential differences in exposure to online hate material targeting sexuality: Deviant Behavior: Vol 40, No 3". doi:10.1080/01639625.2018.1426266. S2CID 148590584.
- ↑ Bernatzky, Colin; Costello, Matthew; Hawdon, James (June 1, 2022). "Who Produces Online Hate?: An Examination of the Effects of Self-Control, Social Structure, & Social Learning". American Journal of Criminal Justice. 47 (3): 421–440. doi:10.1007/s12103-020-09597-3. S2CID 255511825 – via Springer Link.
- ↑ Hawdon, James E. (April 8, 1996). "Cycles of deviance: Structural change, moral boundaries, and drug use, 1880–1990". Sociological Spectrum. 16 (2): 183–207. doi:10.1080/02732173.1996.9982128 – via CrossRef.
- ↑ "APA PsycNet". psycnet.apa.org.
- ↑ "BnF Catalogue général". catalogue.bnf.fr.
- ↑ "Encyclopedia of drug policy | WorldCat.org".
- ↑ "Marijuana in America".
- ↑ "Can Big Data Predict the Rise of Novel Drug Abuse? – Sage Journals". doi:10.1177/0022042618772294. S2CID 81341124.
- ↑ "James Hawdon recognized for outstanding faculty service". liberalarts.vt.edu.
- ↑ "2023 Faculty and Staff Awards". news.vt.edu.
- ↑ "Faculty, staff receive 2023 awards for excellence". liberalarts.vt.edu.
- ↑ "Fulbright Finland Foundation".
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