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Peat is an accumulation of partially decayed vegetation or organic matter. It is unique to natural areas called peatlands, bogs, mires, moors, or muskegs. Sphagnum moss, also called peat moss, is one of the most common components in peat, although many other plants can contribute. The biological features of sphagnum mosses act to create a habitat aiding peat formation, a phenomenon termed 'habitat manipulation'. Soils consisting primarily of peat are known as histosols. Peat forms in wetland conditions, where flooding or stagnant water obstructs the flow of oxygen from the atmosphere, slowing the rate of decomposition. Peat properties such as organic matter content and saturated hydraulic conductivity can exhibit high spatial heterogeneity.
A wetland is a distinct semi-aquatic ecosystem whose groundcovers are flooded or saturated in water, either permanently, for years or decades, or only seasonally. Flooding results in oxygen-poor (anoxic) processes taking place, especially in the soils. Wetlands form a transitional zone between waterbodies and dry lands, and are different from other terrestrial or aquatic ecosystems due to their vegetation's roots having adapted to oxygen-poor waterlogged soils. They are considered among the most biologically diverse of all ecosystems, serving as habitats to a wide range of aquatic and semi-aquatic plants and animals, with often improved water quality due to plant removal of excess nutrients such as nitrates and phosphorus.
A fen is a type of peat-accumulating wetland fed by mineral-rich ground or surface water. It is one of the main types of wetland along with marshes, swamps, and bogs. Bogs and fens, both peat-forming ecosystems, are also known as mires. The unique water chemistry of fens is a result of the ground or surface water input. Typically, this input results in higher mineral concentrations and a more basic pH than found in bogs. As peat accumulates in a fen, groundwater input can be reduced or cut off, making the fen ombrotrophic rather than minerotrophic. In this way, fens can become more acidic and transition to bogs over time.
A bog or bogland is a wetland that accumulates peat as a deposit of dead plant materials – often mosses, typically sphagnum moss. It is one of the four main types of wetlands. Other names for bogs include mire, mosses, quagmire, and muskeg; alkaline mires are called fens. A bayhead is another type of bog found in the forest of the Gulf Coast states in the United States. They are often covered in heath or heather shrubs rooted in the sphagnum moss and peat. The gradual accumulation of decayed plant material in a bog functions as a carbon sink.
Climate change mitigation (or decarbonisation) is action to limit the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere that cause climate change. Climate change mitigation actions include conserving energy and replacing fossil fuels with clean energy sources. Secondary mitigation strategies include changes to land use and removing carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere. Current climate change mitigation policies are insufficient as they would still result in global warming of about 2.7 °C by 2100, significantly above the 2015 Paris Agreement's goal of limiting global warming to below 2 °C.
The eddy covariance is a key atmospheric measurement technique to measure and calculate vertical turbulent fluxes within atmospheric boundary layers. The method analyses high-frequency wind and scalar atmospheric data series, gas, energy, and momentum, which yields values of fluxes of these properties. It is a statistical method used in meteorology and other applications to determine exchange rates of trace gases over natural ecosystems and agricultural fields, and to quantify gas emissions rates from other land and water areas. It is frequently used to estimate momentum, heat, water vapour, carbon dioxide and methane fluxes.
Ombrotrophic ("cloud-fed"), from Ancient Greek ὄμβρος (ómvros) meaning "rain" and τροφή (trofí) meaning "food"), refers to soils or vegetation which receive all of their water and nutrients from precipitation, rather than from streams or springs. Such environments are hydrologically isolated from the surrounding landscape, and since rain is acidic and very low in nutrients, they are home to organisms tolerant of acidic, low-nutrient environments. The vegetation of ombrotrophic peatlands is often bog, dominated by Sphagnum mosses. The hydrology of these environments are directly related to their climate, as precipitation is the water and nutrient source, and temperatures dictate how quickly water evaporates from these systems.
Arctic methane emissions contribute to a rise in methane concentrations in the atmosphere. Whilst the Arctic region is one of many natural sources of the greenhouse gas methane, there is nowadays also a human component to this due to the effects of climate change. In the Arctic, the main human-influenced sources of methane are thawing permafrost, Arctic sea ice melting, clathrate breakdown and Greenland ice sheet melting. This methane release results in a positive climate change feedback, as methane is a powerful greenhouse gas. When permafrost thaws due to global warming, large amounts of organic material can become available for methanogenesis and may therefore be released as methane.
Greenhouse gases (GHGs) are the gases in the atmosphere that raise the surface temperature of planets such as the Earth. What distinguishes them from other gases is that they absorb the wavelengths of radiation that a planet emits, resulting in the greenhouse effect. The Earth is warmed by sunlight, causing its surface to radiate heat, which is then mostly absorbed by greenhouse gases. Without greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, the average temperature of Earth's surface would be about −18 °C (0 °F), rather than the present average of 15 °C (59 °F).
The permafrost carbon cycle or Arctic carbon cycle is a sub-cycle of the larger global carbon cycle. Permafrost is defined as subsurface material that remains below 0o C for at least two consecutive years. Because permafrost soils remain frozen for long periods of time, they store large amounts of carbon and other nutrients within their frozen framework during that time. Permafrost represents a large carbon reservoir, one which was often neglected in the initial research determining global terrestrial carbon reservoirs. Since the start of the 2000s, however, far more attention has been paid to the subject, with an enormous growth both in general attention and in the scientific research output.
Greenhouse gas emissions from wetlands of concern consist primarily of methane and nitrous oxide emissions. Wetlands are the largest natural source of atmospheric methane in the world, and are therefore a major area of concern with respect to climate change. Wetlands account for approximately 20–30% of atmospheric methane through emissions from soils and plants, and contribute an approximate average of 161 Tg of methane to the atmosphere per year.
A peatland is a type of wetland whose soils consist of organic matter from decaying plants, forming layers of peat. Peatlands arise because of incomplete decomposition of organic matter, usually litter from vegetation, due to water-logging and subsequent anoxia. Peatlands are unusual landforms that derive mostly from biological rather than physical processes, and can take on characteristic shapes and surface patterning.
Walter C. Oechel is a researcher who studies the areas of plant eco-physiology, systems ecology, global change, and biosphere-atmosphere interaction. At San Diego State University he is as a Distinguished Professor of Biology, as well as at the Open University, UK. He is also co-director of the Center for Climate and Sustainability Studies (C2S2) and the director of the Global Change Research Group at SDSU.
Sarah E. Hobbie is an American ecologist, currently at the University of Minnesota, a National Academy of Sciences Fellow for Ecology, Evolution and Behavior in 2014 and a formerly Minnesota McKnight Land-Grant Professor.
Increasing methane emissions are a major contributor to the rising concentration of greenhouse gases in Earth's atmosphere, and are responsible for up to one-third of near-term global heating. During 2019, about 60% of methane released globally was from human activities, while natural sources contributed about 40%. Reducing methane emissions by capturing and utilizing the gas can produce simultaneous environmental and economic benefits.
Paludiculture is wet agriculture and forestry on peatlands. Paludiculture combines the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from drained peatlands through rewetting with continued land use and biomass production under wet conditions. “Paludi” comes from the Latin “palus” meaning “swamp, morass” and "paludiculture" as a concept was developed at Greifswald University. Paludiculture is a sustainable alternative to drainage-based agriculture, intended to maintain carbon storage in peatlands. This differentiates paludiculture from agriculture like rice paddies, which involve draining, and therefore degrading wetlands.
Terrestrial ecosystems found in the boreal regions of North America and Eurasia cover 17% of the Earth's land surface, and contain more than 30% of all carbon present in the terrestrial biome. In terms of carbon storage, the boreal region consists of three ecosystems: boreal forest, peatland, and tundra. Vast areas of the globe and are contributing greatly to atmospheric carbon release due to increased temperature and fire hazard. High northern latitudes will experience the most significant increase in warming on the planet as a result of increased atmospheric greenhouse gases thus placing in jeopardy the carbon sink in these areas. In addition to the release of carbon through the melting of permafrost, high intensity wildfires will become more common and thus contribute to the release of stored carbon. This means that the boreal forest and its fire regime is becoming an increasingly more significant factor in determining the global carbon budget.
Tamara Jane Zelikova is a climate change scientist, advocate and communicator interested in the impacts of environmental change on natural and managed ecosystems. Her interests are broad and include tropical biogeochemistry, as well as the effects of climate change on organisms big and small. She combines a strong emphasis on research with an interest in science communication and outreach, thinking about ways to expand the role of science in tackling global issues.
Tara W. Hudiburg is an American forest scientist who specializes in ecosystem modeling. She is an associate professor at the University of Idaho in the department of Forest, Rangeland and Fire Sciences. Hudiburg was honored with the Presidential Early Career Award for Scientists and Engineers in 2019.
Merritt Turetsky is an American ecosystem ecologist and a professor at the University of Colorado Boulder. She currently serves as the Director of Arctic Security for the University of Colorado. She served as the first woman Director of the Institute for Arctic and Alpine Research (INSTAAR) from 2019-2023. Her research considers fire regimes, climate change and biogeochemical cycling in Arctic wetlands. Turetsky is a member of the Permafrost Action Team (SEARCH), a group of scientists who translate and deliver science to decision-makers.
References
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- ↑ "McGill University's theses and dissertations". Érudit. Retrieved 2020-03-13.
- 1 2 Bubier, Jill L. (1995). "The Relationship of Vegetation to Methane Emission and Hydrochemical Gradients in Northern Peatlands". Journal of Ecology. 83 (3): 403–420. doi:10.2307/2261594. ISSN 0022-0477. JSTOR 2261594.
- ↑ Alumni Newsletter. University of Maine School of Law Digital Commons. 23, 1985. https://digitalcommons.mainelaw.maine.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1023&context=maine-law-magazine
- 1 2 Bubier, Jill L.; Bhatia, Gaytri; Moore, Tim R.; Roulet, Nigel T.; Lafleur, Peter M. (2003). "Spatial and Temporal Variability in Growing-Season Net Ecosystem Carbon Dioxide Exchange at a Large Peatland in Ontario, Canada". Ecosystems. 6 (4): 353–367. ISSN 1432-9840. JSTOR 3659035.
- ↑ Bubier, Jill L. "Technical Report Series on the Boreal Ecosystem-Atmosphere Study (BOREAS)" (PDF). NASA/TMm2000. 222.
- ↑ "NSF Award Search: Award#0346625 - CAREER: Strategies for Understanding the Effects of Global Climate and Environmental Change on Northern Peatlands". www.nsf.gov. Retrieved 2020-03-06.
- ↑ "NSF Award Search: Award#1019523 - RUI: Ecosystem responses to atmospheric N deposition in an ombrotrophic bog: vegetation and microclimate feedbacks lead to stronger C sink or source?". www.nsf.gov. Retrieved 2020-03-06.
- ↑ Bubier, Jill L.; Moore, Tim R.; Bellisario, Lianne; Comer, Neil T.; Crill, Patrick M. (1995). "Ecological controls on methane emissions from a Northern Peatland Complex in the zone of discontinuous permafrost, Manitoba, Canada". Global Biogeochemical Cycles. 9 (4): 455–470. Bibcode:1995GBioC...9..455B. doi:10.1029/95GB02379. ISSN 1944-9224.
- ↑ Bubier, J. L.; Moore, T. R.; Roulet, N. T. (1993). "Methane Emissions from Wetlands in the Midboreal Region of Northern Ontario, Canada". Ecology. 74 (8): 2240–2254. doi:10.2307/1939577. ISSN 1939-9170. JSTOR 1939577.
- ↑ Bubier, Jill L.; Crill, Patrick M.; Moore, Tim R.; Savage, Kathleen; Varner, Ruth K. (1998). "Seasonal patterns and controls on net ecosystem CO2 exchange in a boreal peatland complex". Global Biogeochemical Cycles. 12 (4): 703–714. Bibcode:1998GBioC..12..703B. doi: 10.1029/98GB02426 . ISSN 1944-9224.
- ↑ Advisory Committee on Environmental Research and Education Meeting: October 15–16, 2008 . https://www.nsf.gov/geo/ere/ereweb/meetingminutes/ac-ere_oct_2008_minutes.doc
- ↑ Anonymous (2004). "Editors' Citation for Excellence in Refereeing: 2003". Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union. 85 (49): 528. Bibcode:2004EOSTr..85..528.. doi: 10.1029/2004EO490012 . ISSN 0096-3941.