Artifacts
Several of the cemeteries contained burials, which not only were characterized by the placement of stone slabs near them, but also contained various grave goods. [2] Some of the grave goods include beads, [1] iron tools, [1] copper alloys, [1] textiles, [1] bracelets, [2] anklets, [2] snail shells, [2] funerary jars, [2] and even weaponry such as daggers. [2] It is likely that the weaponry found indicated social status and were not used for fighting. [2]
Analysis of the copper indicates that the metal was imported from Carthage in the Roman Empire, providing clear evidence for Trans-Saharan trade in the earliest centuries of the 1st millenium CE. [3]
Beads
Beads, most commonly glass beads, were found in abundance throughout the site. In grave goods excavated at the site, over 5000 various types of beads were located. [1] Beads found buried were noted to be more cylindrical in shape than other beads. The material for beads in graves include shell, jasper, and iron, but beads made out of glass were unique to this time period. [4] Analysis of glass beads indicate that the glass itself may have actually been produced in Western Asia and later recycled by the people of Kissi. [5] This also provides evidence that trade may have been established at Kissi with other nearby sites.
Textiles
Clothing primarily consisted of animal hair and wool, likely from sheep, dromedary, and camels. However, it is unknown if the material was from Kissi or imported from another nearby location. Spindle whorls and various types of yarn found at the site indicate that the textiles were made into a weft-faced plain weave pattern. Other textile evidence, such as combs, looms, and wool-bearing animals have not been found or excavated during the earliest occupation of Kissi, suggesting that weaving began during Kissi's later occupation. [1] The textiles may have also had correlation to the social status of individuals at Kissi [1] or even long distance trade, [2] but no evidence has been discovered to truly prove this. [1]
Iron smelting
There is also evidence that iron smelting was practiced at the site. While there were no furnace remains found, slag was found beneath stone around the site. [2] Ceramics were found above the slag and likely tempered with various plants and sand. [2]
Ceramics
Early occupation of the site only consisted of flat-rimmed ceramic bowls decorated by mat impressing. By 4th century AD, the flat-rimmed ceramic bowls began to decline in production, and instead, Kissi saw an increase in string roulette decoration. By the 9th century AD, the production of flasks and large decorated storage vessels became common. [2]
The Kintampo complex, also known as the Kintampo culture, Kintampo Neolithic, and Kintampo Tradition, was established by Saharan agropastoralists, who may have been Niger-Congo or Nilo-Saharan speakers and were distinct from the earlier residing Punpun foragers, between 2500 BCE and 1400 BCE. The Kintampo complex was a part of a transitory period in the prehistory of West Africa, from pastoralism to sedentism in West Africa, specifically in the Bono East region of Ghana, eastern Ivory Coast, and Togo. The Kintampo complex also featured art, personal adornment items, polished stone beads, bracelets, and figurines; additionally, stone tools and structures were found, which suggests that Kintampo people had both a complex society and were skilled with Later Stone Age technologies.
Djenné-Djenno is a UNESCO World Heritage Site located in the Niger River Valley in the country of Mali. Literally translated to "ancient Djenné", it is the original site of both Djenné and Mali and is considered to be among the oldest urbanized centers and the best-known archaeological sites in West Africa.
African textiles are textiles from various locations across the African continent. Across Africa, there are many distinctive styles, techniques, dyeing methods, and decorative and functional purposes. These textiles hold cultural significance and also have significance as historical documents of African design.
Ing'ombe Ilede is an archaeological site located on a hill near the confluence of the Zambezi and Lusitu rivers, near the town of Siavonga, in Zambia. Ing'ombe Ilede, meaning "a sleeping cow", received its name from a local baobab tree that is partially lying on the ground and resembles a sleeping cow from a distance. The site is thought to have been a small commercial state around the 16th century whose chief item of trade was salt. Ing'ombe Ilede received various goods from the hinterland of south-central Africa, such as, copper, slaves, gold and ivory. These items were exchanged with glass beads, cloth, cowrie shells from the Indian Ocean trade. The status of Ing'ombe Ilede as a trading center that connected different places in south-central Africa has made it a very important archaeological site in the region.
Chibuene is a Mozambican archaeological site, located five kilometres south of the coastal city of Vilanculos South Beach. The site was occupied during two distinct phases. The earlier phase of occupation dates to the late first millennium AD. The second phase dates from around 1450 and is contemporaneous with the Great Zimbabwe civilization in the African interior. During both phases of its development Chibuene was a trading settlement. Trade goods obtained from the site include glass beads, painted blue and white ceramics, and glass bottle fragments. The later phase of settlement has yielded remains of medieval structures as well as evidence of metallurgy. Crucibles have been found that were presumably used to melt gold obtained from trade with the Great Zimbabwe civilization. There is evidence that Chibuene traded extensively with the inland settlement of Manyikeni. Mozambique has jointly inscribed these two properties on their tentative version of the World Heritage List.
The Diy-Gid-Biy (DGB) sites are archaeological sites located around the Mandara Mountains of northern Cameroon and Nigeria, overlooking the several kilometers long Shikewe watershed. These sites get their name Diy-Gid-Biy from the Mafa language, which can be translated as "place of chiefly residence." There are 16 of these DGB sites which date back to around the 15th century AD. While knowledge of these sites has existed for some time, only in 2001 archaeologists began to investigate the sites and their cultural heritage in relation to the region.
Dia (Jà) is a small town and seat of the commune of Diaka in the Cercle of Ténenkou in the Mopti Region of southern-central Mali. It is situated at the western edge of the Inland Delta floodplain, and is watered by the Diaka, one of the Niger River's major distributaries and the only permanent watercourse in the region.
The Bura culture refers to a set of archeological sites in the lower Niger River valley of Niger and Burkina Faso. More specifically, the Iron Age civilization exemplified by the Bura culture was centered in the southwest portion of modern-day Niger and in the southeast part of contemporary Burkina Faso.
Glass in sub-Saharan Africa mostly consists of the importation of glass beads into sub-Saharan Africa, shipped primarily from the Middle East and India as early as 200-300 AD; later, from Portugal, the Netherlands, and Venice. Due to various differences in cultural histories and environmental resources, West African nations developed glass traditions distinct from Egypt, North Africa, and the rest of the world.
Kirikongo is an archaeological site located in the Mouhoun Bend region of Burkina Faso. The importance of Kirikongo and investigations of other sites in the Mouhoun River drainage system is that the system remains relatively unexplored and was inhabited by the ancestors of the Bwa. Additionally, the area represents a zone of punctuated assimilation and adoption of animal husbandry and agriculture during the occupations at Kirikongo. The site consists of several mounds that each represented a household.
The archaeology of Igbo-Ukwu is the study of an archaeological site located in a town of the same name: Igbo-Ukwu, an Igbo town in Anambra State in southeastern Nigeria. As a result of these findings, three excavation areas at Igbo-Ukwu were opened in 1959 and 1964 by Charles Thurstan Shaw: Igbo Richard, Igbo Isaiah, and Igbo Jonah. Excavations revealed more than 700 high quality artifacts of copper, bronze and iron, as well as about 165,000 glass, carnelian and stone beads, pottery, textiles and ivory beads, cups, and horns. The bronzes include numerous ritual vessels, pendants, crowns, breastplates, staff ornaments, swords, and fly-whisk handles.
Leopard's Kopje is an archaeological site, the type site of the associated region or culture that marked the Middle Iron Age in Zimbabwe. The ceramics from the Leopard's Kopje type site have been classified as part of phase II of the Leopard's Kopje culture. For information on the region of Leopard's Kopje, see the "Associated sites" section of this article.
Munsa is an archaeological site in Uganda, located in the south-eastern part of Bunyoro, and is commonly recognized by a rocky hill known by the locals as "Bikegete", which is enclosed within an earthworks system of ancient ditches. The site is approximately 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) north-west of Kakumiro township in Bugangaizi County, Kakumiro District. "Munsa" is a Runyoro(Lunyoro/Runyoro Edited by Nicholas Aliganyira Nkuuna) name that means "in the trenches". The architects of the earthworks are unknown, although it has been speculated that the site can be linked to the Bachwezi. There is no evidence for this, however, and it seems likely that association of Munsa with the Bachwezi or Chwezi is a recent development.
Tønnesminde is the site of an archaeological excavation ground and present-day organic farm on the Danish island of Samsø. Archaeological evidence attests the area around Tønnesminde has a long history of human occupation, dating from approximately 4000 BC. Recent excavations suggest that Tønnesminde contains settlements dating from the Funnelbeaker culture in the Early Neolithic period, Early Bronze Age, Pre-Roman Iron Age, and Viking Age.
Archaeology is promoted in Jersey by the Société Jersiaise and by Jersey Heritage. Promotion in the Bailiwick of Guernsey being undertaken by La Société Guernesiaise, Guernsey Museums, the Alderney Society with World War II work also undertaken by Festung Guernsey.
The Ife Empire was the first empire in Yoruba history. It was founded in what is now southwestern Nigeria and eastern Benin. The Ife Empire lasted from 1200 to 1420. The empire was formed by Odùduwà, and became well-known for its sophisticated art pieces. Although Yoruba was the main language of the empire, there were also various spoken dialects and languages. It rose to power through trade with Sahelian and forest states. Its capital city, Ilé-Ife, was one of the largest urban centers in 14th century West Africa.
Lovea is a modern village and archaeological site located in the Puok district of Siem Reap province, Cambodia. Lovea's circular mound measures 210 metres (690 ft) north–south, and 312 metres (1,024 ft) east-west, and is notable for its two circular embankments or moats that surround the mound, an unusual habitation pattern in this part of Cambodia. The site was first identified and described by French archaeologist Louis Malleret in the 1950s. More recent archaeological excavations have identified burials and residential occupation. The site dates from the second century BCE through the Angkor period to the present day.
Prei Khmeng, or Prei Khmeng village, is an archaeological site located in Siem Reap province, Cambodia. Occupation of Prei Khmeng began during the Iron Age and continued through the 11th century.
Zilum is a settlement of the Gajiganna culture located in the Chad Basin of northeastern Nigeria, 72 km north of Maiduguri in Borno State and is dated to ca 600-400 BCE. The site itself is relatively flat, sits on a large sand ridge, and is bordered to the south by a clay depression. Zilum was discovered in 1997 by Peter Breunig and from 2000-2002, Carlos Magnavita began several test excavations at the site.
Phum Sophy is a mid-late Iron Age archaeological site discovered in the O’Chroc District, Banteay Meanchey Province, Northwest Cambodia. The site was excavated over two field seasons in 2009 and 2010 by primary excavators Dougald O’Reilly of the Australian National University and Louise Shewan of The University of Melbourne. This excavation was part of the ‘History in their Bones: A diachronic, bio-archaeological study of diet, mobility and social organisation in Cambodia’ funded project by the Australian Research Council.
