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The glass cliff is a hypothesized phenomenon of women being likelier than men to achieve leadership roles, such as executives in the corporate world and political election candidates, during periods of crisis or downturn, when the risk of failure is highest. Other research has expanded the definition of the glass cliff phenomenon to include racial and ethnic minority groups.
Sex differences in crime are differences between men and women as the perpetrators or victims of crime. Such studies may belong to fields such as criminology, sociobiology, or feminist studies. Despite the difficulty of interpreting them, crime statistics may provide a way to investigate such a relationship from a gender differences perspective. An observable difference in crime rates between men and women might be due to social and cultural factors, crimes going unreported, or to biological factors for example, testosterone or sociobiological theories). The nature of the crime itself may also require consideration as a factor.
The gender pay gap in the United States is a measure between the earnings of male and females in the workforce. When calculating the pay gap, non-adjusted versus adjusted pay gap is utilized. The adjusted pay gap takes into consideration the differences in hours worked, occupations chosen, education and job experience, whereas the non-adjusted pay gap is the overall difference of gross hourly earnings of males and females in the United States. The non-adjusted average female annual salary is around 80% of the average male salary, compared to 95% for the adjusted average salary.
Men's health is a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being, as experienced by men, and not merely the absence of disease. Differences in men's health compared to women's can be attributed to biological factors, behavioural factors, and social factors.
Gender is correlated with the prevalence of certain mental disorders, including depression, anxiety and somatic complaints. For example, women are more likely to be diagnosed with major depression, while men are more likely to be diagnosed with substance abuse and antisocial personality disorder. There are no marked gender differences in the diagnosis rates of disorders like schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. Men are at risk to suffer from post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) due to past violent experiences such as accidents, wars and witnessing death, and women are diagnosed with PTSD at higher rates due to experiences with sexual assault, rape and child sexual abuse. Nonbinary or genderqueer identification describes people who do not identify as either male or female. People who identify as nonbinary or gender queer show increased risk for depression, anxiety and post-traumatic stress disorder. People who identify as transgender demonstrate increased risk for depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorder.
Women in Sri Lanka make up to 52.09% of the population according to the 2012 census of Sri Lanka. Sri Lankan women have contributed greatly to the country's development, in many areas. Historically, a masculine bias has dominated Sri Lankan culture, and they are allowed to vote in election since 1931. Although Sri Lanka has been tremendously successful in achieving greater gender parity, women still suffer a lower status compared with men.
Feminist psychology is a form of psychology centered on social structures and gender. Feminist psychology critiques historical psychological research as done from a male perspective with the view that males are the norm. Feminist psychology is oriented on the values and principles of feminism.
Queen bee syndrome is a phenomenon first defined by C. Tavris, G.L. Staines, and T.E. Jayaratne in 1973. “Queen bee” is a derogatory term applied to women who have achieved success in traditionally male-dominated fields. These women often take on “masculine” traits and distance themselves from other women in the workplace in order to succeed. They may also view or treat subordinates more critically if they are female, and refuse to help other women rise up the ranks as a form of self-preservation.
Many scholars and policymakers have noted that the fields of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) have remained predominantly male with historically low participation among women since the origins of these fields in the 18th century during the Age of Enlightenment.
Voting behavior refers to how people decide how to vote. This decision is shaped by a complex interplay between an individual voter's attitudes as well as social factors. Voter attitudes include characteristics such as ideological predisposition, party identity, degree of satisfaction with the existing government, public policy leanings, and feelings about a candidate’s personality traits. Social factors include race, religion and degree of religiosity, social and economic class, educational level, regional characteristics, and gender. The degree to which a person identifies with a political party influences voting behavior, as does social identity. Voter decision-making is not a purely rational endeavor but rather is profoundly influenced by personal and social biases and deeply held beliefs as well as characteristics such as personality, memory, emotions, and other psychological factors.
Sex differences in humans have been studied in a variety of fields. Sex determination occurs by the presence or absence of a Y in the 23rd pair of chromosomes in the human genome. Phenotypic sex refers to an individual's sex as determined by their internal and external genitalia and expression of secondary sex characteristics.
Alice H. Eagly is the James Padilla Chair of Arts and Sciences Emerita and emerita professor of psychology at Northwestern University. She is also a fellow at the Institute of Policy Research at Northwestern University. Her primary research focus is social psychology, as well as personality psychology and Industrial Organizational Psychology. She was elected as a member of the National Academy of Sciences in 2022.
The gender pay gap or gender wage gap is the average difference between the remuneration for men and women who are working. Women are generally found to be paid less than men. In the United States, for example, the average annual salary of a woman is 83% that of a man. However, this figure changes when controlled for confounding factors such as differences in hours worked, occupations chosen, education, job experience, and level of danger at work. Attempts to control for these factors arrive at adjusted figures from 95% to 99%.
Jennifer A. Chatman is an American academic who is the Associate Dean for Academic Affairs and the Paul J. Cortese Distinguished Professor of Management at the Haas School of Business, University of California, Berkeley. Chatman is also the Co-Director of the Berkeley Haas Culture Initiative, the Assistant Dean for Learning Strategies at the Haas School of Business, and Editor for the journal Research in Organizational Behavior.
Women in Iceland generally enjoy good gender equality. As of 2018, 88% of working-age women were employed, 65% of students attending university were female, and 41% of members of parliament were women. Nevertheless, women still earn about 14% less than men, though these statistics do not take into account the hours worked, over-time, and choices of employment. Iceland has the world's highest proportion of women in the labour market, significant child care allocations for working women. It has gender neutral parental leave, with a quota for each parent, and a transferable part.
Gender discrimination in health professions refers to the entire culture of bias against female clinicians, expressed verbally through derogatory and aggressive comments, lower pay and other forms of discriminatory actions from predominantly male peers. These women face difficulties in their work environment as a result of a largely male dominated positions of power within the medical field as well as initial biases presented in the hiring process, but not limited to promotions.
Irene Hanson Frieze is a personality psychologist and pioneering figure in the field of women's studies. She is known for her research on intimate partner violence in marriage and dating relationships, and for cross-cultural studies of attitudes about work and gender roles. Frieze is Professor Emerita of Psychology and Women's Studies at the University of Pittsburgh.
Janet Shibley Hyde is the Helen Thompson Woolley Professor of Psychology and Gender & Women's Studies at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. She is known for her research on human sexuality, sex differences, gender development, gender and science, and feminist theory, and is considered one of the leading academics in the field of gender studies.
The gender-equality paradox is the finding that various gender differences in personality and occupational choice are larger in more gender equal countries. Larger differences are found in Big Five personality traits, Dark Triad traits, self-esteem, depression, personal values, occupational and educational choices. This phenomenon is seemingly paradoxical because one would expect the differences to be reduced as countries become more gender egalitarian.
Leigh Thompson is the J. Jay Gerber Professor of Dispute Resolution & Organizations in the Kellogg School of Management at Northwestern University. She is the director of High Performance Negotiation Skills Executive program, the Kellogg Leading High Impact Teams Executive program and the Kellogg Team and Group Research Center. She also serves as the co-director of the Navigating Work Place Conflict Executive program and the Constructive Collaboration Executive program.
References
- 1 2 Leadership (EGAL), Center for Equity, Gender, and (2020-06-22). "Q&A With Dr. Laura Kray, PhD". Medium. Retrieved 2023-03-07.
- 1 2 "Laura Kray". Berkeley Exec Ed. 2015-04-29. Retrieved 2023-03-07.
- ↑ "Weighting of attributes hypothesis : how perspective relates to preference shifts | WorldCat.org". www.worldcat.org. Retrieved 2023-03-07.
- ↑ "The Tragedy of Workplace Gender Inequality: Why Fewer Women Occupy Managerial Positions". Global Research and Consulting Group Insights. 2021-08-11. Retrieved 2023-03-07.
- ↑ "Prof. Laura Kray on team size and the gender pay gap". Berkeley Haas. Retrieved 2023-03-07.
- ↑ "People Are More Likely To Lie To Women During Negotiations, Study Finds". Association for Psychological Science - APS. Retrieved 2023-03-07.
- ↑ "Why People Are More Likely To Lie To Women". HuffPost UK. 2014-07-31. Retrieved 2023-03-07.
- 1 2 "Who flirts to get ahead at work? Study finds it's most often subordinate men". EurekAlert!. Retrieved 2023-03-07.
- ↑ "Fear of Professional Backlash May Keep Women from Speaking Up at Academic Conferences". Association for Psychological Science - APS. Retrieved 2023-03-07.
- ↑ Counts, Laura (2019-04-02). "Why women can't negotiate away the gender pay gap". Haas News | Berkeley Haas. Retrieved 2023-03-07.
- ↑ "Fellows | Society for Personality and Social Psychology". spsp.org. Retrieved 2023-03-07.
- ↑ "Researcher detail". www.psinetwork.org. Retrieved 2023-03-07.