Mallian Campaign

Last updated
Alexander's Indian campaign
Part of the Indian campaign of Alexander the Great
AlexanderConquestsInIndia.jpg
Alexander's Indian conquests, with the Mallian campaign at the confluence of the Hydraotis and the Hydaspes
DateNovember 326 – February 325 BC
Location
Punjab region

30°42′N72°18′E / 30.700°N 72.300°E / 30.700; 72.300 Coordinates: 30°42′N72°18′E / 30.700°N 72.300°E / 30.700; 72.300
Result Macedonia conquers the Mallian homeland (pre-modern Pakistan)
Belligerents
Macedon
Hellenic League 		Malli
Commanders and leaders
Alexander the Great
Hephaestion
Peithon 		various
West Asia non political.jpg
Red pog.svg
Malli
Location within South Asia

The Mallian Campaign was conducted by Alexander the Great from November 326 to February 325 BC, against the Malli of the Punjab. Alexander was defining the eastern limit of his power by marching down-river along the Hydaspes to the Acesines (now the Jhelum and Chenab), but the Malli and the Oxydraci combined to refuse passage through their territory. Alexander sought to prevent their forces meeting, and made a swift campaign against them which successfully pacified the region between the two rivers. Alexander was seriously injured during the course of the campaign, almost losing his life. [1]

Alexander the Great King of Macedon

Alexander III of Macedon, commonly known as Alexander the Great, was a king (basileus) of the ancient Greek kingdom of Macedon and a member of the Argead dynasty. He was born in Pella in 356 BC and succeeded his father Philip II to the throne at the age of 20. He spent most of his ruling years on an unprecedented military campaign through Asia and northeast Africa, and by the age of thirty he had created one of the largest empires of the ancient world, stretching from Greece to northwestern India. He was undefeated in battle and is widely considered one of history's most successful military commanders.

Malavas

The Malavas or Malwas were an ancient Indian tribe. Modern scholars identify them with the Malloi who were settled in the Punjab region at the time of Alexander's invasion in the 4th century BCE. Later, the Malavas migrated southwards to present-day Rajasthan, and ultimately to Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat. Their power gradually declined as a result of defeats against the Western Satraps, the Gupta emperor Samudragupta, and the Chalukya emperor Pulakeshin II.

Jhelum City in Punjab, Pakistan

Jhelum is a city on the right bank of the Jhelum River, in the district of the same name in the north of Punjab province, Pakistan. Jhelum is known for providing a large number of soldiers to the British Army before independence, and later to the Pakistan armed forces - due to which it is also known as City of Soldiers or Land of Martyrs and Warriors.

Contents

Background

The campaign against the Malli (identified with the Malavas [2] [3] ) occurred a year after Alexander crossed the Hindu Kush, [4] [ page needed ] and eight years after the start of his campaigns against the Persian Empire. At this time, his conquests stretched from Greece into India; some of the Indian tribes had previously been part of the Persian Empire. The political situation in Greece was quiet. [5]

Hindu Kush mountain range near Afghanistan and Pakistan border

The Hindu Kush, also known in Ancient Greek as the Caucasus Indicus or Paropamisadae, is an 800-kilometre-long (500 mi) mountain range that stretches near the Afghan-Pakistan border, from central Afghanistan to northern Pakistan. It forms the western section of the Hindu Kush Himalayan Region (HKH). It divides the valley of the Amu Darya to the north from the Indus River valley to the south.

Alexander had defeated King Porus at the Battle of the Hydaspes in May 326 BC, and then stayed in his territory for thirty days. [6] During this time, he reconciled King Porus and his other vassal, Taxiles, with each other, as they were both to be his new vassals. [6] Alexander achieved this by arbitrating their disputes and then arranging a family alliance. [7] He then marched north-east toward the Glaukanokoi, and received the submission of their thirty-seven cities. [6] Abisares of Kashimir submitted to the Macedonians as well, and gave them many gifts, including forty elephants. [6] Alexander proposed to march further east to the River Ganges and fight the powerful empires of the Nanda and the Gangaridai. According to Arrian, he expressed his thoughts thus; [8]

Battle of the Hydaspes battle fought by Alexander the Great in 326 BC in the Punjab

The Battle of the Hydaspes was fought in 326 BC between Alexander the Great and King Porus of the Paurava kingdom on the banks of the river Jhelum in the Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent. The battle resulted in a Greek victory and the surrender of Porus. Large areas of the Punjab between the Hydaspes (Jhelum) and Hyphasis (Beas) rivers were absorbed into the Alexandrian Empire, and Porus was reinstated as a subordinate ruler.

Gangaridai

Gangaridai is a term used by the ancient Greco-Roman writers to describe a people or a geographical region of the ancient Indian subcontinent. Some of these writers state that Alexander the Great withdrew from the Indian subcontinent because of the strong war elephant force of the Gangaridai. The writers variously mention the Gangaridai as a distinct tribe, or a nation within a larger kingdom.

Now if anyone desires to hear where our warfare will find its end and limit, let him know that the distance from where we are to the river Ganges is no longer great; and this you will find is connected to the Hyrcanian sea; for the great sea surrounds the entire earth. I will also demonstrate to the Macedonians and their allies not only that the Indian gulf is confluent with the Persian, but the Hycranian gulf is confluent with the Indian.

Alexander the Great beneath the Mallian walls Alexander the Great Beneath the Mallian Walls.jpg
Alexander the Great beneath the Mallian walls

At the Beas River, his army mutinied. They did not share his ambition and wished to return home. It had been raining for the last seventy days. [8] At the Battle of Hydaspes they had suffered many casualties. The Nanda Empire was rumoured to be even more powerful than Porus, who was only a princeling. Coenus' spoke on behalf of the troops and pleaded with Alexander to allow them to return, to the agreement of the other officers. Alexander finally gave in. [9]

Beas River River in north India

The Beas River is a river in north India. The river rises in the Himalayas in central Himachal Pradesh, India, and flows for some 470 kilometres (290 mi) to the Sutlej River in the Indian state of Punjab. Its total length is 470 kilometres (290 mi) and its drainage basin is 20,303 square kilometres (7,839 sq mi) large.

Shortly after this, Memnon brought up reinforcements of 6,000 cavalry from Thrace, and 7,000 infantry. [7] The reinforcements brought with them twenty five thousand suits of armour. [7] Had these reinforcements come sooner, Alexander could have persuaded his soldiers to march on. Upset, but resigned, Alexander decided to head south, following the river Hydaspes, after the omens ostensibly declared it unfavourable to march further east. Initially, the fleet and army just sailed down the river, occasionally marching short distances inland. [10] Only slight opposition was experienced. [10]

Omen

An omen is a phenomenon that is believed to foretell the future, often signifying the advent of change. People in ancient times believed that omens bring a divine message from their gods.

Alexander received news that the Mallians and the Oxydracians had decided to trade hostages with each other, and moved all their valuables into their fortified cities. [11] [12] They decided to combine their forces in order to prevent him from marching through their territory. Reports suggested that they had a total of 90,000 foot, 10,000 horse and 900 chariots. [11] [12] In spite of the fact that the two had traditionally been enemies, it was reported that they had laid aside their disputes to fight the Macedonians. Alexander decided to prevent them from joining their forces.[ citation needed ]

Infantry military service branch that specializes in combat by individuals on foot

Infantry is the branch of an army that engages in military combat on foot, distinguished from cavalry, artillery, and tank forces. Also known as foot soldiers, infantry traditionally relies on moving by foot between combats as well, but may also use mounts, military vehicles, or other transport. Infantry make up a large portion of all armed forces in most nations, and typically bear the largest brunt in warfare, as measured by casualties, deprivation, or physical and psychological stress.

Cavalry soldiers or warriors fighting from horseback

Cavalry or horsemen are soldiers or warriors who fight mounted on horseback. Cavalry were historically the most mobile of the combat arms. An individual soldier in the cavalry is known by a number of designations such as cavalryman, horseman, dragoon, or trooper. The designation of cavalry was not usually given to any military forces that used other animals, such as camels, mules or elephants. Infantry who moved on horseback, but dismounted to fight on foot, were known in the 17th and early 18th centuries as dragoons, a class of mounted infantry which later evolved into cavalry proper while retaining their historic title.

It was Alexander's habit, as with his father, to campaign in all seasons of the year. [13] In Greece, this meant the winter, but in India, it meant the rainy season or cold season. The Mallian alliance was unaware of this practice, and therefore might have expected more time to prepare for Alexander's advance. Throughout his career, Alexander made many celebrated marches in spite of difficult conditions. After the Battle of Gaugamela Alexander and his forces are alleged to have reached the Great Zab, 34 miles (55 km) from the battlefield, only one day later. [13]

Phases

First

Upon receiving the news of the alliance in November, Alexander raced out to prevent the junction of the two tribes. He reached the area in five days by sailing down the Hydaspes with the fleet he had recently built. [11] The boats had been built to be taken apart and put back together, so that they could be conveyed across the Punjab. There were, as there are now, five rivers in the Punjab - it is sometimes referred to as "The Valley of the Five Rivers" - so it was necessary to drag the boats from one to the next. [14] [ page needed ] The Hydaspes and Acesines were dangerous to sail down in this area, and the Macedonians sustained considerable damage to some of their ships, in addition to some casualties. [11] They used two sorts of vessels, warships and the transport ships known as "round vessels". [15] The transport ships were not damaged, [15] as their round hulls helped them navigate the difficult channels. By contrast, the warships had considerable difficulties, and many were destroyed. [15] Their double rows of oars meant that the bottom row of oars would get caught on the river bank. [15] At one point Alexander even took off his armour, preparing to jump in the water, for fear that his ship was going to sink. [15]

First phase Mallian phase 1 1.svg
First phase

However, the Macedonians got through. [15] Arriving in the confederacies' territory, they set about the task of pacification. While their ships were undergoing repairs, the Macedonians first attacked a tribe to the west called the Sibea. [15] This tribe, alleged to have 40,000 warriors, was on the right bank, and thus the Macedonians had to cross the river in order to attack them. [15] [16] The Macedonians destroyed their capital city and burned their crops, slew all the males, and enslaved the women and children. [15] [16] Previously, Alexander had been scrupulous about being merciful towards the inhabitants of his newly conquered territories. This marked change in policy was intended as an example to the other tribes. It was done, allegedly, to secure the Macedonians' line of communications, which, being already over-extended, were at a serious risk of being cut.[ citation needed ] They extended all the way from Babylon to the Punjab, if they were cut anywhere the entire expedition could have been compromised. No half measures were taken in securing the lines of communications in their extended condition.

Alexander was determined not to let the Mallians escape him, and therefore he planned a sophisticated campaign that allowed him to retain the interior lines, so that he could reinforce himself at any threatened point. [17]

He added Philip's corps, Polyperchon's brigade, the horse-bowmen and the elephants which had been marching down the river, to Craterus' force. [18] He then ordered Nearchus to sail down the river with the fleet and establish a base to conduct further operations at the junction of the Acesines and the Hydraotis. [18] In addition, the base would be used to catch any escaping Mallians. [18] Three days later, Alexander ordered Craterus to follow him[ clarification needed ] down the river on the right bank. [18]

First phase continued Mallian phase 1 2.svg
First phase continued

Alexander divided his army into three parts and crossed over onto the left bank. [18] His own force was to march directly across the desert, [18] and was to take upon itself the most difficult work, as was his habit. His force consisted of hypaspists, archers, Agrianians, Peithon's brigade of the phalanx, the horse archers and half the Companion cavalry. [18] While it was a difficult march across the desert, the march was to serve two purposes; first it was to surprise the Mallians, [18] secondly it was to afford him a strategic position from which he could drive them to the south, [18] so that they would be pressed towards the rest of his forces. [18] Hephaestion's force was ordered to march opposite Craterus' force, on the left bank of the same river. [18] He was sent five days ahead of Alexander, in order to ensure that any retreating forces Alexander impelled would be easily caught if they managed to evade Craterus. [18] Ptolemy I Soter's force was ordered to follow Alexander's march three days later, in order to ensure that any Mallians that did escape to the north were still captured and slaughtered. [18]

Second

At this point, the tentative alliance between the Mallians and the Oxydracians began to break down. [17] The two tribes could not agree on who was to lead them, [17] and their forces retreated to their strongholds, each group to fend for themselves. [17]

After starting across the desert, Alexander marched continuously, with only a single half-day halt at a place where water could be obtained. [17] His detachment of the army marched 45 miles (72 km) in about 24 hours. [19] [20] Arriving near the city of Kot Kamalia at daybreak, [20] Alexander rode ahead with his Companion cavalry and totally surprised the Mallians — so much so that many of them were still outside the city. As Alexander had expected, they did not think he would cross the desert. [21] A vast number of them were slain, [21] [22] and Alexander chased those whom he could not massacre into the city. [22] He then created a cordon of cavalry around this relatively small town, and awaited the arrival of his infantry. [21] [22]

Second phase Mallian phase 2.svg
Second phase

When the infantry arrived, Alexander detached Perdiccas with the cavalry of Cleitus the White and his own cavalry, and ordered him to surround another Mallian city to the south-east. [21] However, he gave him specific instructions not to actually besiege the city, for fear that some of the inhabitants would flee and give news of what was going on to others in the area, giving them time to escape. [22] Alexander desired that Perdiccas should await his own arrival with the rest of the force. [23] This is another example of Alexander taking up each and every task he deemed to be important in person, this was a practice he repeated throughout all of his campaigns. It was soon after this that Alexander took the city that he was currently besieging, employing siege equipment such as the torsion catapult. [24] The torsion catapult was the most powerful of the era, and had revolutionised siege warfare; Alexander would use it to capture all the other cities in the region. [25] Alexander's army then overcame the city's garrison, two thousand strong, and killed them all. [23] When Perdiccas arrived at the town he was supposed to take, he found it empty; he chased down the survivors and put them to the sword. [22]

Alexander allowed his men to rest until the first watch of the night. [26] After this, the Macedonians continued to pursue the Mallians, the next town being the modern Brahmin town of Atari. Upon arriving, Alexander immediately sent his phalanx forward and prepared to undermine the city walls. However, the Indians, who were by now familiar with Alexander's expertise in besieging, decided they could hold out better in the citadel. [13] The Macedonians followed. Alexander led a siege of the citadel, bringing his phalanx up towards the walls. [26] The citadel was burnt, and five thousand Mallians died within its walls. [27] [28]

After taking a single day's rest, [28] Alexander headed for the city of Mallians (this city has been identified as present-day Multan, although this identification is not certain). [29] However, the Mallians had crossed the river already,[ clarification needed ] and were awaiting his arrival on the western bank.[ citation needed ]

Final

Final phase Mallian phase 3.svg
Final phase

Before continuing his campaign against the Mallians, Alexander sent Peithon and Demetrius back towards the river, the forests, and the desert. [28] [30] Their orders were to kill anyone who did not submit. [28] The reason was that so many of the cities were deserted when Alexander's forces reached them. [28] Refugees from these cities had been taken prisoner in the forests in the area alongside the Hydraotis. [30] [ clarification needed ]

The Malli offered battle to Alexander on the high ground of the western bank of the Hydraotis. [30] However, Alexander and his army had become such an object of fear in their eyes that he decided to charge them across the river.[ citation needed ] This was not a new tactic, as his father Phillip II had perfected the cavalry arm of Macedon to such an extent that the infantry, on many occasions, would only attack after the cavalry. [13] [ page needed ] The Mallians fled without the Macedonian infantry even joining battle. Alexander pursued them with his cavalry for 5 miles (8.0 km). [31]

Cavalry attack Mallian campaign cavalry attack.svg
Cavalry attack

The Mallians, realising how small the number of Macedonian cavalry was, chose to stop and fight them. Arrian estimated that there were fifty thousand Mallians at this point.[ citation needed ] As expert as the Companion cavalry was, Alexander had placed himself in a vulnerable situation. However, the Macedonians formed up and circled around the Mallians, attacking them in the flank and rear. [31] Eventually, the Macedonian light infantry came up, and the Mallians lost heart and fled to the city of Mallians. [32] [33] Alexander followed them to the city, and then rested his columns for the rest of the day. [32] [33]

Siege of the citadel

The ladder breaks stranding Alexander and a few companions, within the Mallian town. Andre Castaigne (1898-1899). The ladder breaks stranding Alexander and a few companions within the Mallian town by Andre Castaigne (1898-1899).jpg
The ladder breaks stranding Alexander and a few companions, within the Mallian town. André Castaigne (1898-1899).

Alexander arranged two separate forces, one to be led by himself and the other by Perdiccas. The Indians almost immediately retreated into the main citadel. The citadel was substantial, with its walls a mile around. [33] But Alexander was able to force one of the gates, and made his way into the outer parts of the citadel. [33] There the Macedonians began to undermine the next layer of walls.[ citation needed ]

Alexander quickly became impatient at the pace of the siege, so he grabbed a ladder and went up it himself. [33] He was followed by only two soldiers. The rest of the soldiers, nervous about the safety of their king, crowded the ladders to get up so that they could protect him. There were too many of them, and the ladders collapsed under the weight. The Mallians realised who Alexander was, and focused their energies on him. Many of Alexander's men held out their arms and called for him to jump down to them. [34] The King, however, would not.

Alexander leaped into the inner area of the citadel. [35] There, he killed the Mallians' leader. [36] But an arrow penetrated Alexander's lung, and he was severely wounded. [37] The Macedonians believed Alexander dead. After gaining entrance to the city, they planned to kill everyone in revenge.[ citation needed ]

Result

Alexander at the wall of Multan in the Punjab. Alexander at the wall of Multan in the Punjab.jpg
Alexander at the wall of Multan in the Punjab.

When the Macedonians reached Alexander, some of them placed him on a shield and quickly ran back with him to a tent. [38] An incision had to be made in order to get the arrow out, however everyone was afraid to make the incision themselves. Perdiccas came forward and volunteered to make the incision. An incision was made and the arrow head was withdrawn from the wound. The soldiers were very anxious about his health, since they believed he was the only one who could lead them back home. [39] [ page needed ] For some days he hovered between life and death.

The main body of the army, four days away from Alexander's location, heard that he was dead. [38] Rumours spread like wildfire, and when reports came in that he was alive and was recovering, they would not believe it. [40] He was eventually placed upon a boat where he could see the troops, and the troops could see him. [39] [ page needed ] However, his health was in such a delicate state that during his course down the river they would not even row the boat, for fear that the oars slapping the water would disturb him. [41] [ clarification needed ]

Four days afterwards, the Macedonians reached a fertile country which the natives had completely deserted. [12] Alexander was confronted by some of his close companions. They told him that he should not expose himself so recklessly in battle. [41] Alexander received the final submission of the Malli, who had submitted after the capture of their capital city. He sent their ambassadors away, and they returned later with 300 four horse chariots. In addition to this, Alexander also received 1,000 Indian shields, a number of lions and 100 talents. [42]

Related Research Articles

This article concerns the period 329 BC – 320 BC.

Porus 4th century BC King of Paurava

Porus or Poros, was an ancient Indian king whose territory spanned the region between the Hydaspes and Acesines, in the Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent. He is credited to have been a legendary warrior with exceptional skills. Porus fought against Alexander the Great in the Battle of the Hydaspes, thought to be fought at the site of modern-day Mong, Punjab, which is now part of the modern country of Pakistan. Though not recorded in any available ancient Indian source, Ancient Greek historians describe the battle and the aftermath of Alexander's victory. After the defeat and arrest of Porus in the war, Alexander asked Porus how he would like to be treated. Porus, although defeated, being a valiant, proud king, stated that he be treated like how Alexander himself would expect to be treated. Alexander was reportedly so impressed by his adversary that he not only reinstated him as a satrap of his own kingdom but also granted him dominion over lands to the south-east extending until the Hyphasis (Beas). Porus reportedly died sometime between 321 and 315 BC.

Seleucus I Nicator Alexandrian general

Seleucus I Nicator was one of the Diadochi. Having previously served as an infantry general under Alexander the Great, he eventually assumed the title of basileus and established the Seleucid Empire over much of the territory in the Near East which Alexander had conquered.

Hephaestion Macedonian noble and general

Hephaestion, son of Amyntor, was an ancient Macedonian nobleman and a general in the army of Alexander the Great. He was "by far the dearest of all the king's friends; he had been brought up with Alexander and shared all his secrets." This relationship lasted throughout their lives, and was compared, by others as well as themselves, to that of Achilles and Patroclus.

Battle of Issus Battle between Alexander the Great and the Achaemenids

The Battle of Issus occurred in southern Anatolia, on November 5, 333 BC between the Hellenic League led by Alexander the Great and the Achaemenid Empire, led by Darius III, in the second great battle of Alexander's conquest of Asia. The invading Macedonian troops defeated Persia. After the Hellenic League soundly defeated the Persian satraps of Asia Minor at the Battle of the Granicus, Darius took personal command of his army. He gathered reinforcements and led his men in a surprise march behind the Hellenic advance to cut their line of supply. This forced Alexander to countermarch, setting the stage for the battle near the mouth of the Pinarus River and the town of Issus.

Battle of Gaugamela decisive battle of Alexander the Greats invasion of the Persian Achaemenid Empire

The Battle of Gaugamela, also called the Battle of Arbela, was the decisive battle of Alexander the Great's invasion of the Persian Achaemenid Empire. In 331 BC Alexander's army of the Hellenic League met the Persian army of Darius III near Gaugamela, close to the modern city of Dohuk in Iraqi Kurdistan. Though heavily outnumbered, Alexander emerged victorious due to his army's superior tactics and his deft employment of light infantry. It was a decisive victory for the Hellenic League and led to the fall of the Achaemenid Empire.

Wars of Alexander the Great conflicts fought by King Alexander III of Macedon ("The Great"), against other Greek powers, the Persian Empire and warlords as far east as Punjab, India

The wars of Alexander the Great were fought by King Alexander III of Macedon, first against the Achaemenid Persian Empire under Darius III, and then against local chieftains and warlords as far east as Punjab, India. Due to the sheer scale of these wars, and the fact that Alexander was generally undefeated in battle, he has been regarded as one of the most successful military commanders of all time. By the time of his death, he had conquered most of the world known to the ancient Greeks. Although being successful as a military commander, he failed to provide any stable alternative to the Achaemenid Empire—his untimely death threw the vast territories he conquered into civil war.

Meleager was a Macedonian officer who served Alexander the Great with distinction. Among the king's generals who went with him to Asia, he was the most experienced as the only military figure who exceeded his experience was the Macedonian general Antipater who remained in Macedon during Alexander's entire Asian campaign.

The pezhetairoi were the backbone of the Macedonian army and Diadochi kingdoms. They were literally "foot companions".

Taxiles Takshashilas ruler

Taxiles was the Greek chroniclers' name for a prince or king who reigned over the tract between the Indus and the Jhelum (Hydaspes) Rivers in the Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent at the time of Alexander the Great's expedition. His local name was Ambhi, and the Greeks appear to have called him Taxiles or Taxilas, from the name of his capital city of Taxila, near the modern city of Attock, Pakistan.

Philip (son of Machatas)

Philip, son of Machatas and brother of Harpalus, was an officer in the service of Alexander the Great, who in 327 BC was appointed by Alexander as satrap of India, including the provinces westward of the Hydaspes, as far south as the junction of the Indus with the Acesines. After the conquest of the Malli and Oxydracae, these tribes also were added to his government.

Philotas was a Macedonian officer in the service of Alexander the Great, who commanded one taxis or division of the phalanx during the advance into Sogdiana and India. It seems probable that he is the same person mentioned by Curtius, as one of those rewarded by the king at Babylon for their distinguished services. There is little doubt also, that he is the same to whom the government of Cilicia was assigned in the distribution of the provinces after the death of Alexander, 323 BC. In 321 BC, he was deprived of his government by Perdiccas and replaced by Philoxenus, but it would seem that this was only in order to employ him elsewhere, as we find him still closely attached to the party of Perdiccas, and after the death of the regent united with Alcetas, Attalus, and their partisans, in the contest against Antigonus. He was taken prisoner, together with Attalus, Docimus, and Polemon, in 320 BC, and shared with them their imprisonment, as well as the daring enterprise by which they for a time recovered their liberty, when they took possession of their prison, overpowering their guards. He again fell into the power of Antigonus, in 316 BC.

Neoptolemus (general) Ancient Macedonian general

Neoptolemus was a Macedonian officer who served under Alexander the Great.

Peithon, son of Agenor was an officer in the expedition of Alexander the Great to India, who became satrap of the Indus from 325 to 316 BCE, and then satrap of Babylon, from 316 to 312 BCE, until he died at the Battle of Gaza in 312 BCE.

Partition of Babylon

The Partition of Babylon was the first of the conferences and ensuing agreements that divided the territories of Alexander the Great. It was held at Babylon in June 323 BC. Alexander’s death at the age of 32 had left an empire that stretched from Greece all the way to India. The issue of succession resulted from the claims of the various supporters of Philip Arrhidaeus, and the as-of-then unborn child of Alexander and Roxana, among others. The settlement saw Arrhidaeus and Alexander’s child designated as joint kings with Perdiccas serving as regent. The territories of the empire became satrapies divided between the senior officers of the Macedonian army and some local governors and rulers. The partition was solidified at the further agreements at Triparadisus and Persepolis over the following years and began the series of conflicts that comprise the Wars of the Diadochi.

Battle of the Persian Gate victory of the invading Macedonian army, commanded by Alexander the Great, over the Persian army

The Battle of the Persian Gate was a military conflict between Achaemenid Persian army, commanded by the satrap of Persis, Ariobarzanes, and the invading Hellenic League, commanded by Alexander the Great. In the winter of 330 BC, Ariobarzanes led a last stand of the outnumbered Persian forces at the Persian Gates near Persepolis, holding the Macedonian army for a month. Alexander eventually found a path to the rear of the Persians from the captured prisoners of war or a local shepherd, eventually capturing Persepolis.

Indian campaign of Alexander the Great military campaign conducted by Alexander the Great into the northwestern Indian subcontinent

The Indian campaign of Alexander the Great began in 326 BC. After conquering the Achaemenid Empire of Persia, the Macedonian king, Alexander, launched a campaign into the Indian subcontinent in present-day Pakistan, part of which formed the easternmost territories of the Achaememid Empire following the Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley. The rationale for this campaign is usually said to be Alexander's desire to conquer the entire known world, which the Greeks thought ended in India.

Cophen Campaign campaign conducted by Alexander the Great between May 327 BC to March 326 BC in the modern-day Swat valley of Pakistan

The Cophen Campaign was conducted by Alexander the Great between May 327 BC and March 326 BC. It was conducted in Swat in what is now the Punjab region in Pakistan. Alexander's goal was to secure his line of communications so that he could conduct a campaign in India proper. To achieve this, he needed to capture a number of fortresses controlled by the local tribes.

References

  1. ↑ Theodore Dodge 1890, p. 605.
  2. ↑ Ian Worthington 2014, p. 219.
  3. ↑ Peter Green 2013, p. 418.
  4. ↑ Benjamin Wheeler 1900.
  5. ↑ Benjamin Wheeler 1900, p. 447.
  6. 1 2 3 4 Benjamin Wheeler 1900, p. 448.
  7. 1 2 3 Quntus Curtius Rufus 1809, p. 321.
  8. 1 2 Benjamin Wheeler 1900, p. 451.
  9. ↑ Benjamin Wheeler 1900, p. 454.
  10. 1 2 Benjamin Wheeler 1900, p. 456.
  11. 1 2 3 4 Theodore Dodge 1890, p. 592.
  12. 1 2 3 Quntus Curtius Rufus 1809, p. 327.
  13. 1 2 3 4 Hans Delbruck 1990.
  14. ↑ Quntus Curtius Rufus 1809.
  15. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Theodore Dodge 1890, p. 593.
  16. 1 2 Quntus Curtius Rufus 1809, p. 326.
  17. 1 2 3 4 5 Theodore Dodge 1890, p. 595.
  18. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Theodore Dodge 1890, p. 594.
  19. ↑ Theodore Dodge 1890, p. 596.
  20. 1 2 Arrian 1893, p. 301.
  21. 1 2 3 4 Theodore Dodge 1890, p. 597.
  22. 1 2 3 4 5 Arrian 1893, p. 302.
  23. 1 2 Theodore Dodge 1890, p. 598.
  24. ↑ Ian Worthington 2008, p. 27.
  25. ↑ Ian Worthington 2008, p. 28.
  26. 1 2 Arrian 1893, p. 303.
  27. ↑ Theodore Dodge 1890, p. 600.
  28. 1 2 3 4 5 Arrian 1893, p. 304.
  29. ↑ Theodore Dodge 1890, p. 606.
  30. 1 2 3 Theodore Dodge 1890, p. 601.
  31. 1 2 Theodore Dodge 1890, p. 602.
  32. 1 2 Arrian 1893, p. 305.
  33. 1 2 3 4 5 Theodore Dodge 1890, p. 603.
  34. ↑ Benjamin Wheeler 1900, p. 458.
  35. ↑ Dave, Wood. "In the footsteps of Alexander the Great". The City of Multan. BBC . Retrieved July 14, 2011.
  36. ↑ Arrian 1893, p. 604.
  37. ↑ Theodore Dodge 1890, p. 604.
  38. 1 2 Benjamin Wheeler 1900, p. 459.
  39. 1 2 Arrian 1893.
  40. ↑ Benjamin Wheeler 1900, p. 460.
  41. 1 2 Benjamin Wheeler 1900, p. 461.
  42. ↑ Quntus Curtius Rufus 1809, p. 350.

Bibliography

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.