Mallian campaign

Last updated
Mallian campaign
Part of the Indian campaign of Alexander the Great
AlexanderConquestsInIndia.jpg
Alexander's Indian conquests, with the Mallian campaign at the confluence of the Hydraotis and the Hydaspes
DateNovember 326 – February 325 BC
Location
Punjab region
30°42′N72°18′E / 30.700°N 72.300°E / 30.700; 72.300
Result Hellenic conquest of the Mallian homeland (modern day Pakistan)
Belligerents
Vergina Sun WIPO.svg Macedon
League of Corinth 		Mallians
Commanders and leaders
Vergina Sun WIPO.svg Alexander the Great  (WIA)
Vergina Sun WIPO.svg Hephaestion
Vergina Sun WIPO.svg Peithon
Vergina Sun WIPO.svg Craterus 		Various
West Asia non political with water system.jpg
Red pog.svg
Malli
class=notpageimage|
Location within South Asia
Alexander the Great
Mallian campaign
[fullscreen map]
  current battle

The Mallian campaign was conducted by Alexander the Great from November 326 to February 325 BC, against the Mallians of the Punjab. [1] [2] Alexander was defining the eastern limit of his power by marching down-river along the Hydaspes to the Acesines (now the Jhelum and Chenab), but the Malli and the Oxydraci combined to refuse passage through their territory. Alexander sought to prevent their forces meeting, and made a swift campaign against them which successfully pacified the region between the two rivers. Alexander was seriously injured during the course of the campaign, almost losing his life. [3]

Contents

Background

The campaign against the Malli (identified with the Malavas [1] [2] ) occurred a year after Alexander crossed the Hindu Kush, [4] [ page needed ] and eight years after the start of his campaigns against the Persian Empire. At this time, his conquests stretched from Greece into India; some of the Indian tribes had previously been part of the Persian Empire. The political situation in Greece was quiet. [5]

Alexander had defeated King Porus at the Battle of the Hydaspes in May 326 BC, and then stayed in his territory for thirty days. [6] During this time, he reconciled King Porus and his other ally, Taxiles, with each other, as they were both to be his new vassals. [6] Alexander achieved this by arbitrating their disputes and then arranging a family alliance. [7] He then marched north-east toward the Glaukanokoi, and received the submission of their thirty-seven cities. [6] Abisares of Kashimir submitted to the Macedonians as well, and gave them many gifts, including forty elephants. [6] Alexander proposed to march further east to the River Ganges and fight the powerful empires of the Nanda and the Gangaridai. According to Arrian, he expressed his thoughts thus; [8]

Now if anyone desires to hear where our warfare will find its end and limit, let him know that the distance from where we are to the river Ganges is no longer great; and this you will find is connected to the Hyrcanian sea; for the great sea surrounds the entire earth. I will also demonstrate to the Macedonians and their allies not only that the Indian gulf is confluent with the Persian, but the Hycranian gulf is confluent with the Indian.

Alexander the Great beneath the Mallian walls Alexander the Great Beneath the Mallian Walls.jpg
Alexander the Great beneath the Mallian walls

At the Beas River, his army mutinied. They did not share his ambition and wished to return home. It had been raining for the last seventy days. [8] At the Battle of Hydaspes they had suffered many casualties. The Nanda Empire was rumoured to be even more powerful than Porus, who was only a princeling. Coenus' spoke on behalf of the troops and pleaded with Alexander to allow them to return, to the agreement of the other officers. Alexander finally gave in. [9]

Shortly after this, Memnon brought up reinforcements of 6,000 cavalry from Thrace, and 7,000 infantry. [7] The reinforcements brought with them twenty five thousand suits of armour. [7] After uniting with Memnon's forces, Alexander decided to head south, following the river Hydaspes, after the omens ostensibly declared it unfavourable to march further east. Initially, the fleet and army just sailed down the river, occasionally marching short distances inland. [10] Only slight opposition was experienced. [10]

Alexander received news that the Mallians and the Oxydracians had decided to trade hostages with each other, and moved all their valuables into their fortified cities. [11] [12] They decided to combine their forces in order to prevent him from marching through their territory. Reports suggested that they had a total of 90,000 foot, 10,000 horse and 900 chariots. [11] [12] In spite of the fact that the two had traditionally been enemies, it was reported that they had laid aside their disputes to fight the Macedonians. Alexander decided to prevent them from joining their forces.[ citation needed ]

It was Alexander's habit, as with his father, to campaign in all seasons of the year. [13] In Greece, this meant the winter, but in India, it meant the rainy season or cold season. The Mallian alliance was unaware of this practice, and therefore might have expected more time to prepare for Alexander's advance. Throughout his career, Alexander made many celebrated marches in spite of difficult conditions. After the Battle of Gaugamela Alexander and his forces are alleged to have reached the Great Zab, 34 miles (55 km) from the battlefield, only one day later. [13]

Phases

First

First phase Mallian phase 1 1.svg
First phase

Upon receiving the news of the alliance in November, Alexander raced out to prevent the junction of the two tribes. He reached the area in five days by sailing down the Hydaspes with the fleet he had recently built. [11] The boats had been built to be taken apart and put back together, so that they could be conveyed across the Punjab. There were, as there are now, five rivers in the Punjab - it is sometimes referred to as "The Valley of the Five Rivers" - so it was necessary to drag the boats from one to the next. [14] [ page needed ] The Hydaspes and Acesines were dangerous to sail down in this area, and the Macedonians sustained considerable damage to some of their ships, in addition to some casualties. [11] They used two sorts of vessels, warships and the transport ships known as "round vessels". [15] The transport ships were not damaged, [15] as their round hulls helped them navigate the difficult channels. By contrast, the warships had considerable difficulties, and many were destroyed. [15] Their double rows of oars meant that the bottom row of oars would get caught on the river bank. [15] At one point Alexander even took off his armour, preparing to jump in the water, for fear that his ship was going to sink. [15]

However, the Macedonians got through. [15] Arriving in the confederacies' territory, they set about the task of pacification. While their ships were undergoing repairs, the Macedonians first attacked a tribe to the west called the Sibea. [15] This tribe, alleged to have 40,000 warriors, was on the right bank, and thus the Macedonians had to cross the river in order to attack them. [15] [16] The Macedonians destroyed their capital city and burned their crops, slew all the males, and enslaved the women and children. [15] [16] Previously, Alexander had been scrupulous about being merciful towards the inhabitants of his newly conquered territories. This marked change in policy was intended as an example to the other tribes. It was done, allegedly, to secure the Macedonians' line of communications, which, being already over-extended, were at a serious risk of being cut.[ citation needed ] They extended all the way from Babylon to the Punjab, if they were cut anywhere the entire expedition could have been compromised. No half measures were taken in securing the lines of communications in their extended condition.

Alexander was determined not to let the Mallians escape him, and therefore he planned a sophisticated campaign that allowed him to retain the interior lines, so that he could reinforce himself at any threatened point. [17]

He added Philip's corps, Polyperchon's brigade, the horse-bowmen and the elephants which had been marching down the river, to Craterus' force. [18] He then ordered Nearchus to sail down the river with the fleet and establish a base to conduct further operations at the junction of the Acesines and the Hydraotis. [18] In addition, the base would be used to catch any escaping Mallians. [18] Three days later, Alexander ordered Craterus to follow him[ clarification needed ] down the river on the right bank. [18]

First phase continued Mallian phase 1 2.svg
First phase continued

Alexander divided his army into three parts and crossed over onto the left bank. [18] His own force was to march directly across the desert, [18] and was to take upon itself the most difficult work, as was his habit. His force consisted of hypaspists, archers, Agrianians, Peithon's brigade of the phalanx, the horse archers and half the Companion cavalry. [18] While it was a difficult march across the desert, the march was to serve two purposes; first it was to surprise the Mallians, [18] secondly it was to afford him a strategic position from which he could drive them to the south, [18] so that they would be pressed towards the rest of his forces. [18] Hephaestion's force was ordered to march opposite Craterus' force, on the left bank of the same river. [18] He was sent five days ahead of Alexander, in order to ensure that any retreating forces Alexander impelled would be easily caught if they managed to evade Craterus. [18] Ptolemy I Soter's force was ordered to follow Alexander's march three days later, in order to ensure that any Mallians that did escape to the north were still captured and slaughtered. [18]

Second

At this point, the tentative alliance between the Mallians and the Oxydracians began to break down. [17] The two tribes could not agree on who was to lead them, [17] and their forces retreated to their strongholds, each group to fend for themselves. [17]

After starting across the desert, Alexander marched continuously, with only a single half-day halt at a place where water could be obtained. [17] His detachment of the army marched 45 miles (72 km) in about 24 hours. [19] [20] Arriving near the city of Kot Kamalia at daybreak, [20] Alexander rode ahead with his Companion cavalry and totally surprised the Mallians — so much so that many of them were still outside the city. As Alexander had expected, they did not think he would cross the desert. [21] A vast number of them were slain, [21] [22] and Alexander chased those whom he could not massacre into the city. [22] He then created a cordon of cavalry around this relatively small town, and awaited the arrival of his infantry. [21] [22]

Second phase Mallian phase 2.svg
Second phase

When the infantry arrived, Alexander detached Perdiccas with the cavalry of Cleitus the White and his own cavalry, and ordered him to surround another Mallian city to the south-east. [21] However, he gave him specific instructions not to actually besiege the city, for fear that some of the inhabitants would flee and give news of what was going on to others in the area, giving them time to escape. [22] Alexander desired that Perdiccas should await his own arrival with the rest of the force. [23] This is another example of Alexander taking up each and every task he deemed to be important in person, this was a practice he repeated throughout all of his campaigns. It was soon after this that Alexander took the city that he was currently besieging, employing siege equipment such as the torsion catapult. [24] The torsion catapult was the most powerful of the era, and had revolutionised siege warfare; Alexander would use it to capture all the other cities in the region. [25] Alexander's army then overcame the city's garrison, two thousand strong, and killed them all. [23] When Perdiccas arrived at the town he was supposed to take, he found it empty; he chased down the survivors and put them to the sword. [22]

Alexander allowed his men to rest until the first watch of the night. [26] After this, the Macedonians continued to pursue the Mallians, the next town being the modern Brahmin town of Atari. Upon arriving, Alexander immediately sent his phalanx forward and prepared to undermine the city walls. However, the Indians, who were by now familiar with Alexander's expertise in besieging, decided they could hold out better in the citadel. [13] The Macedonians followed. Alexander led a siege of the citadel, bringing his phalanx up towards the walls. [26] The citadel was burnt, and five thousand Mallians died within its walls. [27] [28]

After taking a single day's rest, [28] Alexander headed for the city of Mallians (this city has been identified as present-day Multan, although this identification is not certain). [29] However, the Mallians had crossed the river already,[ clarification needed ] and were awaiting his arrival on the western bank.[ citation needed ]

Final

Final phase Mallian phase 3.svg
Final phase

Before continuing his campaign against the Mallians, Alexander sent Peithon and Demetrius back towards the river, the forests, and the desert. [28] [30] Their orders were to kill anyone who did not submit. [28] The reason was that so many of the cities were deserted when Alexander's forces reached them. [28] Refugees from these cities had been taken prisoner in the forests in the area alongside the Hydraotis. [30] [ clarification needed ]

The Malli offered battle to Alexander on the high ground of the western bank of the Hydraotis. [30] However, Alexander and his army had become such an object of fear in their eyes that he decided to charge them across the river.[ citation needed ] This was not a new tactic, as his father Phillip II had perfected the cavalry arm of Macedon to such an extent that the infantry, on many occasions, would only attack after the cavalry. [13] [ page needed ] The Mallians fled without the Macedonian infantry even joining battle. Alexander pursued them with his cavalry for 5 miles (8.0 km). [31]

Cavalry attack Mallian campaign cavalry attack.svg
Cavalry attack

The Mallians, realising how small the number of Macedonian cavalry was, chose to stop and fight them. Arrian estimated that there were fifty thousand Mallians at this point.[ citation needed ] As expert as the Companion cavalry was, Alexander had placed himself in a vulnerable situation. However, the Macedonians formed up and circled around the Mallians, attacking them in the flank and rear. [31] Eventually, the Macedonian light infantry came up, and the Mallians lost heart and fled to the city of Mallians. [32] [33] Alexander followed them to the city, and then rested his columns for the rest of the day. [32] [33]

Siege of the citadel

The ladder breaks stranding Alexander and a few companions within the Mallian town. Andre Castaigne (1898-1899). The ladder breaks stranding Alexander and a few companions within the Mallian town by Andre Castaigne (1898-1899).jpg
The ladder breaks stranding Alexander and a few companions within the Mallian town. André Castaigne (1898-1899).

Alexander arranged two separate forces, one to be led by himself and the other by Perdiccas. The Indians almost immediately retreated into the main citadel. The citadel was substantial, with its walls a mile around. [33] But Alexander was able to force one of the gates, and made his way into the outer parts of the citadel. [33] There the Macedonians began to undermine the next layer of walls.[ citation needed ]

Alexander quickly became impatient at the pace of the siege, so he grabbed a ladder and went up it himself. [33] He was followed by only two soldiers. The rest of the soldiers, nervous about the safety of their king, crowded the ladders to get up so that they could protect him. There were too many of them, and the ladders collapsed under the weight. The Mallians realised who Alexander was, and focused their energies on him. Many of Alexander's men held out their arms and called for him to jump down to them. [34] The King, however, would not.

Alexander leaped into the inner area of the citadel, [35] where he killed the Mallians' leader. [36] However, during the fighting an arrow penetrated Alexander's lung, severely wounding him. [37] The Macedonians believed Alexander to be dead. After gaining entrance to the city, they planned to kill everyone in revenge.[ citation needed ]

Result

Alexander at the wall of Multan in the Punjab. From a drawing by Francois Verdier (1651-1730). Alexander at the wall of Multan in the Punjab.jpg
Alexander at the wall of Multan in the Punjab. From a drawing by François Verdier (1651-1730).

When the Macedonians reached Alexander, some of them placed him on a shield and quickly ran back with him to a tent. [38] An incision had to be made in order to get the arrow out, however everyone was afraid to make the incision themselves. Perdiccas came forward and volunteered to make the incision. An incision was made and the arrow head was withdrawn from the wound. The soldiers were very anxious about his health, since they believed he was the only one who could lead them back home. [39] [ page needed ] For some days he hovered between life and death.

The main body of the army, four days away from Alexander's location, heard that he was dead. [38] Rumours spread like wildfire, and when reports came in that he was alive and was recovering, they would not believe it. [40] He was eventually placed upon a boat where he could see the troops, and the troops could see him. [39] [ page needed ] However, his health was in such a delicate state that during his course down the river they would not even row the boat, for fear that the oars slapping the water would disturb him. [41] [ clarification needed ]

Four days afterwards, the Macedonians reached a fertile country which the natives had completely deserted. [12] Alexander was confronted by some of his close companions. They told him that he should not expose himself so recklessly in battle. [41] Alexander received the final submission of the Malli, who had submitted after the capture of their capital city. He sent their ambassadors away, and they returned later with 300 four horse chariots. In addition to this, Alexander also received 1,000 Indian shields, a number of lions and 100 talents. [42]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Alexander the Great</span> Military commander and king of Macedon (356–323 BC)

Alexander III of Macedon, most commonly known as Alexander the Great, was a king of the ancient Greek kingdom of Macedon. He succeeded his father Philip II to the throne in 336 BC at the age of 20 and spent most of his ruling years conducting a lengthy military campaign throughout Western Asia, Central Asia, parts of South Asia, and Egypt. By the age of 30, he had created one of the largest empires in history, stretching from Greece to northwestern India. He was undefeated in battle and is widely considered to be one of history's greatest and most successful military commanders.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Porus</span> Ancient Indian ruler

Porus or Poros was an ancient Indian king whose territory spanned the region between the Jhelum River (Hydaspes) and Chenab River (Acesines), in the Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent. He is only mentioned in Greek sources. Credited to have been a legendary warrior with exceptional skills, Porus unsuccessfully fought against Alexander the Great in the Battle of the Hydaspes. In the aftermath, an impressed Alexander not only reinstated him as his satrap but also granted him dominion over lands to the south-east extending as far as the Hyphasis (Beas). Porus reportedly died sometime between 321 and 315 BC.

Perdiccas was a general of Alexander the Great. He took part in the Macedonian campaign against the Achaemenid Empire, and, following Alexander's death in 323 BC, rose to become supreme commander of the imperial army, as well as regent for Alexander's half brother and intellectually disabled successor, Philip Arridaeus.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hephaestion</span> Macedonian nobleman and general (c. 356–324 BC)

Hephaestion, son of Amyntor, was an ancient Macedonian nobleman of probable "Attic or Ionian extraction" and a general in the army of Alexander the Great. He was "by far the dearest of all the king's friends; he had been brought up with Alexander and shared all his secrets." This relationship lasted throughout their lives, and was compared, by others as well as themselves, to that of Achilles and Patroclus.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Battle of Issus</span> 333 BC battle between Alexander the Great and Darius III

The Battle of Issus occurred in southern Anatolia, on 5 November 333 BC between the Hellenic League led by Alexander the Great and the Achaemenid Empire, led by Darius III. It was the second great battle of Alexander's conquest of Asia, and the first encounter between Darius III and Alexander the Great. The battle resulted in the Macedonian troops defeating the Persian forces.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Battle of Gaugamela</span> Major battle of the Wars of Alexander the Great (331 BC)

The Battle of Gaugamela, also called the Battle of Arbela, took place in 331 BC between the forces of the Army of Macedon under Alexander the Great and the Persian Army under King Darius III. It was the second and final battle between the two kings, and is considered to be the final blow to the Achaemenid Empire, resulting in its complete conquest by Alexander.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wars of Alexander the Great</span> Conflicts of Alexander The Great

The wars of Alexander the Great were a series of conquests that were carried out by Alexander III of Macedon from 336 BC to 323 BC. They began with battles against the Achaemenid Persian Empire, then under the rule of Darius III of Persia. After Alexander's chain of victories against Achaemenid Persia, he began a campaign against local chieftains and warlords that stretched as far from Greece as the region of Punjab in South Asia. At the time of his death, he ruled over most regions of Greece and the conquered Achaemenid Empire ; he did not, however, manage to conquer the Indian subcontinent in its entirety according to his initial plan. Despite his military accomplishments, Alexander did not provide any stable alternative to the rule of the Achaemenid Empire, and his untimely death threw the vast territories he conquered into a series of civil wars, commonly known as the Wars of the Diadochi.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Battle of the Hydaspes</span> Part of the Indian campaign of Alexander the Great

The Battle of the Hydaspes also known as Battle of Jhelum, or First Battle of Jhelum, was fought between Alexander the Great and Porus in May of 326 BC. It took place on the banks of the Hydaspes River in Punjab, as part of Alexander's Indian campaign. In what was possibly their most costly engagement, the Macedonian army secured a decisive victory over the Pauravas and captured Porus. Large areas of Punjab were subsequently absorbed into the Macedonian Empire; Porus was reinstated as the region's ruler after Alexander, having developed a newfound respect for the fierce resistance put up by Porus and his army, appointed him as a satrap.

Meleager was a Macedonian officer who served under Alexander the Great. He was among the generals that accompanied the king in his quest to conquer Asia Minor, and was one of the most experienced among them. The only military figure who was more experienced than Meleager was the Macedonian general Antipater, who remained in Macedon during Alexander's entire Asian campaign.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Battle of the Granicus</span> Battle fought between Alexander the Great and the Achaemenids

The Battle of the Granicus in May 334 BC was the first of three major battles fought between Alexander the Great of Macedon and the Persian Achaemenid Empire. The battle took place on the road from Abydus to Dascylium, at the crossing of the Granicus in the Troad region, which is now called the Biga River in Turkey. In the battle Alexander defeated the field army of the Persian satraps of Asia Minor, which defended the river crossing. After this battle, the Persians were forced on the defensive in the cities that remained under their control in the region.

The pezhetairoi were the backbone of the Macedonian army and Diadochi kingdoms. They were literally "foot companions".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Taxiles</span> King of Gandhara and its capital Takshashila (Taxila)

Taxiles or Taxilas was the Greek chroniclers' name for the ruler who reigned over the tract between the Indus and the Jhelum (Hydaspes) Rivers in the Punjab region at the time of Alexander the Great's expedition. His real name was Ambhi, and the Greeks appear to have called him Taxiles or Taxilas, after the name of his capital city of Taxila, near the modern city of Attock, Pakistan.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cleophis</span>

Cleophis was an Assacani queen and key figure in the war between the Assacani people and Alexander the Great. Cleophis was the mother of Assacanus, the Assacanis' war-leader at the time of Alexander's invasion in 326 BCE. After her son's death in battle, Cleophis assumed command and negotiated a settlement that allowed her to retain her status. Later accounts claim Cleophis had a son by Alexander, a notion dismissed by historians.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Partition of Babylon</span> 323 BC conference dividing the territories of Alexander the Great

The Partition of Babylon was the first of the conferences and ensuing agreements that divided the territories of Alexander the Great. It was held at Babylon in June 323 BC. Alexander’s death at the age of 32 had left an empire that stretched from Greece all the way to India. The issue of succession resulted from the claims of the various supporters of Philip Arrhidaeus, and the as-of-then unborn child of Alexander and Roxana, among others. The settlement saw Arrhidaeus and Alexander’s child designated as joint kings with Perdiccas serving as regent. The territories of the empire became satrapies divided between the senior officers of the Macedonian army and some local governors and rulers. The partition was solidified at the further agreements at Triparadisus and Persepolis over the following years and began the series of conflicts that comprise the Wars of the Diadochi.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Battle of the Persian Gate</span> Part of the Wars of Alexander the Great

The Battle of the Persian Gate took place as part of the Wars of Alexander the Great. In the winter of 330 BC, Ariobarzanes of Persis led a last stand with his outnumbered Persian army at the Persian Gate, near Persepolis, and held back the Macedonian army for approximately a month. However, through captured prisoners of war or a local shepherd, Alexander found a path around to flank the Persian troops from the rear, allowing him to capture half of Persia proper in another decisive victory against the Achaemenid Empire.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Siege of Gaza (332 BCE)</span> Part of the Wars of Alexander the Great

The siege of Gaza, as part of the Wars of Alexander the Great, took place in October of 332 BCE. Resulting in a victory for Macedon, it ended the 31st Dynasty of Egypt, which functioned as a satrapy under the Achaemenid Persian Empire.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Indian campaign of Alexander the Great</span> Ancient Greek military campaign

The Indian campaign of Alexander the Great began in 327 BC and lasted until 325 BC. After conquering the Achaemenid Persian Empire, the Macedonian army undertook an expedition into the northwestern Indian subcontinent. Within two years, Alexander expanded the Macedonian Empire to include present-day Punjab and Sindh in what is modern-day Pakistan, surpassing the earlier frontiers that had been established by the Persian conquest of the Indus Valley.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Battle of Thebes</span> Battle in 335 BC

The Battle of Thebes took place between Alexander the Great and the Greek city-state of Thebes in 335 BC immediately outside of and in the city proper in Boeotia. After being made hegemon of the League of Corinth, Alexander had marched to the north to deal with revolts in Illyria and Thrace, which forced him to draw heavily from the troops in Macedonia that were maintaining pressure on the city-states of southern Greece to keep them in subjection.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cophen campaign</span> Military campaign by Alexander the Great in 327-326 BC.

The Cophen campaign was conducted by Alexander the Great in the Kabul Valley between May 327 BC and March 326 BC. It was conducted against the Aspasioi, the Guraeans, and the Assakenoi tribes in the Kunar valley of Afghanistan, and Panjkora (Dir) and Swat valleys in what is now Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. The goal of the campaign was to secure the Macedonian line of communications so that the Macedonian army could proceed into India proper.

Mallian people were a tribe from southern Punjab, with capital in today's Multan city, south of the confluence of the Jhelum (Hydaspes) and Ravi, (Hydraotes) rivers, who confronted Alexander the Great during his Mallian campaign in 326 BC. They are mentioned by ancient Greek historians during the campaign of Alexander.

References

  1. 1 2 Ian Worthington 2014, p. 219.
  2. 1 2 Peter Green 2013, p. 418.
  3. ↑ Theodore Dodge 1890, p. 605.
  4. ↑ Benjamin Wheeler 1900.
  5. ↑ Benjamin Wheeler 1900, p. 447.
  6. 1 2 3 4 Benjamin Wheeler 1900, p. 448.
  7. 1 2 3 Quintus Curtius Rufus 1809, p. 321.
  8. 1 2 Benjamin Wheeler 1900, p. 451.
  9. ↑ Benjamin Wheeler 1900, p. 454.
  10. 1 2 Benjamin Wheeler 1900, p. 456.
  11. 1 2 3 4 Theodore Dodge 1890, p. 592.
  12. 1 2 3 Quintus Curtius Rufus 1809, p. 327.
  13. 1 2 3 4 Hans Delbruck 1990.
  14. ↑ Quintus Curtius Rufus 1809.
  15. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Theodore Dodge 1890, p. 593.
  16. 1 2 Quintus Curtius Rufus 1809, p. 326.
  17. 1 2 3 4 5 Theodore Dodge 1890, p. 595.
  18. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Theodore Dodge 1890, p. 594.
  19. ↑ Theodore Dodge 1890, p. 596.
  20. 1 2 Arrian 1893, p. 301.
  21. 1 2 3 4 Theodore Dodge 1890, p. 597.
  22. 1 2 3 4 5 Arrian 1893, p. 302.
  23. 1 2 Theodore Dodge 1890, p. 598.
  24. ↑ Ian Worthington 2008, p. 27.
  25. ↑ Ian Worthington 2008, p. 28.
  26. 1 2 Arrian 1893, p. 303.
  27. ↑ Theodore Dodge 1890, p. 600.
  28. 1 2 3 4 5 Arrian 1893, p. 304.
  29. ↑ Theodore Dodge 1890, p. 606.
  30. 1 2 3 Theodore Dodge 1890, p. 601.
  31. 1 2 Theodore Dodge 1890, p. 602.
  32. 1 2 Arrian 1893, p. 305.
  33. 1 2 3 4 5 Theodore Dodge 1890, p. 603.
  34. ↑ Benjamin Wheeler 1900, p. 458.
  35. ↑ Dave, Wood. "In the footsteps of Alexander the Great". The City of Multan. BBC . Retrieved July 14, 2011.
  36. ↑ Arrian 1893, p. 604.
  37. ↑ Theodore Dodge 1890, p. 604.
  38. 1 2 Benjamin Wheeler 1900, p. 459.
  39. 1 2 Arrian 1893.
  40. ↑ Benjamin Wheeler 1900, p. 460.
  41. 1 2 Benjamin Wheeler 1900, p. 461.
  42. ↑ Quintus Curtius Rufus 1809, p. 350.

Bibliography

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.