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The Marine West Coast Forest is a Level I ecoregion of North America designated by the Commission for Environmental Cooperation (CEC) in its North American Environmental Atlas. The region includes parts of Alaska, the Yukon, British Columbia, Washington, Oregon, and California.
The region is strongly influenced by the large mountain ranges stretching throughout most of the coast. Changes in elevation cause changes in plant/animal diversity, this can be exemplified through observing the alpine tundra's vegetation which consists of shrubs, herbs, mosses, and lichens; while lower elevations, the temperate coastal forest hold magnificently large trees such as western hemlock, California redwood, and the red alder. These differences are in direct correlation with the availability of oxygen, and other nutrients at higher elevations. [1] The mountains also create rain-shadow areas due to the clouds having to release their precipitation in order to get over the mountains, or be blocked all together. Trees, which perform better under stress, grow in these areas such as the Douglas fir. As for the soil, the region generally has a thin podzol soil, causing it to be extremely acidic. Farmers must compensate by applying fertilizers and lime to lower the acidic levels for agricultural viability. [2] Digging even deeper the then soil within the region will reveal mostly igneous and sedimentary rock. Colluvium and morainal deposits make up most of the surface materials. Mountains, which so intensely affect the region, are massive formations resulting from upheaval caused by continental collisions [3]
The climate of the marine west coast forests is humid. According to the Köppen climate classification system, this climate is very damp throughout most of the year, receiving a great amount of rainfall along with heavy cloud cover. The marine climate can also be defined with its narrow range of temperatures throughout the year. Precipitation is ample and consistent in the marine west coast, with many days of rainfall and a large annual accumulation. Many areas in the marine west coast climate have more than 150 days of rainfall per a year, along with averaging around 50 to 250 centimeters per a year of total rainfall. [4] The average temperatures of areas within the marine west coast forests usually range from 10 °C to 15 °C. [4]
These mild temperatures are in collaboration with the moderating effect of ocean bodies on air temperatures due to the constant influx of oceanic air influencing the marine west coast throughout the year. [5] The marine west coast is located in the path of westerly winds from the ocean that contribute to its cloudy skies, significant amount of precipitation, and mild temperatures. [6] The rainfall, seasons, and temperature are all dependent on each other and are all affected by the global circulatory pattern.
The main watersheds in the region are the Puget Sound and Columbia River Watershed. Due to the region’s proximity to the Pacific Ocean, this ecoregion experiences large amounts of precipitation annually, creating a very humid and wet climate. The majority of river and stream activity is directly influenced by the annual precipitation patterns. In the rainy season from October to May, most of the low elevation rivers and streams experience peak run off levels. Rivers and streams at higher elevation are more influenced by snow melt and therefore experience peak run off from late spring into early summer due to the snow melt. The permeability levels of bedrock in the area of interest dictate surface water in the region. Volcanic parent material, as found in Oregon, tends to result in lower levels of ground water due to the low permeability of the rock. Although areas with volcanic parent material may have fewer ground water aquifers, these areas tend to have better developed stream networks and higher stream drainage levels (Moore, 765). Areas with newer volcanic bedrock have higher levels of permeability, and are therefore more likely to have ground water aquifers. These areas will experience lower stream drainage densities and less developed stream networks due to the greater rate of ground water recharge (Moore, 765).
The plants in this region are responsible for holding the geography and geology of the area intact. The north–south orientation of the mountain ranges combines with the moist polar air masses and mild westerlies coming eastward off the Pacific Ocean to form a weather pattern that dominates the area. This pattern consists of a temperate moist zone on the west side of the mountains and a drier moderate climate on the east side. The moist conditions along with glacial valleys cut by the glaciers allow for a variety of plant life to thrive.
The softwood stands of the highlands are keystone species in maintaining land integrity. The ability of the firs and spruces to populate the high altitude and shallow soil works like glue to hold the soil in place. As you drop in altitude pines and cedars do the same for the lower slopes. Erosion control is key to keeping the glacial valleys and their rivers free from silt build up, which has the ability to devastate the salmon population, as well as holding the integrity of the mountain ranges.
Marine West Coast Forests combine aquatic ecosystems with temperate rainforests to provide habitat for an abundance of wildlife. The sea otter is considered a keystone species because of the critical role it plays in maintaining the structure of the ecosystem. Sea otters feed on sea urchins, which are herbivores of kelps. A large mass of kelp can become an underwater kelp forest, which is considered by many to be one of the most productive and dynamic ecosystems on Earth. Two more dominant species found in the Marine West Coast Forest are the gray wolf and grizzly bears. Grizzly bears provide a connection between the marine coast and the forests when they eat nitrogen-rich salmon and transfer the nutrients to the forests. The Pacific salmon provide strong sources of nitrogen for the aquatic ecosystems. Due to the high precipitation in this Eco region, the nitrogen levels can be very low. The Pacific salmon helps to normalize the nitrogen levels. Without anyone of these species, the ecosystem would fall apart. The Marine West Coast Forests are a unique habitat for a diverse group of species.
Several species struggle to survive in the ever disappearing and degrading ecosystems of the northwest. These species face a high risk of extinction; some iconic examples of those listed as threatened or endangered in this ecoregion include the giant sequoia, coast redwood, and marbled murrelet.
The giant sequoia and coast redwood are listed as a vulnerable under the IUCN Red List standards (Conifer Specialist Group 1998). Large-scale logging, felling 90 to 95 percent of the old-growth forest between 1856 and 1955, is primarily to blame for these species’ now limited range. The remainder of most populations of giant sequoias and coast redwoods is now almost entirely in parks and reserves. (Farjon & Page 1999) Fire prevention policy, however, is most to blame for the continued declining of populations, as the build-up of undergrowth hampers the regeneration of both species (Vankat 1977). Luckily, plans to improve management and plant trees on cleared land are in place. (Farjon & Page 1999)
Though the marbled murrelet is still considered abundant, its population has undergone a rapid decline, principally because the old-growth forests in which they breed are subject to logging (Piatt et al. 2006). Current estimates are nearly half of historic numbers, suggesting just 350,000 to 420,000 remain (Piatt et al. 2007). The IUCN has listed the species as endangered (BirdLife International 2012). Hard forest edges resulting from forest fragmentation greatly subject murrelet nests to corvid predation and other associated disturbances (Peery et al. 2004). Declines in areas where logging is not an issue can be explained by the overexploitation and subsequent collapse of the pacific sardine fishery. Nylon gill-nets in shallow waters and oil spills have cause considerable mortality, as well (Piatt & Naslund 1995). In response, conservation measures have been implemented to slow the species’ decline, including: the prevention of logging within identified breeding areas (Nelson 1997), the development of detailed research and recovery plans (Kaiser et al. 1994, CMMRT 2003, Escene 2007), and the protection of 179 square kilometers on Afognak Island by the Exxon Valdex Trustee Council (EVOSTC 1995).
The Marine West Coast Forest's primary environmental threats are human development and population growth, logging, spruce bark beetle populations, and invasive species. This ecological region is home to large cities like Vancouver, Portland, Anchorage, and Seattle. As these cities continue to grow in population, greater tracts of land are being developed, and more resources are needed to accommodate these higher populations. Logging is another large human induced environmental threat to the ecoregion. Logging causes habitat fragmentation and adversely affects important species such as spotted owl, grizzly bear, and Kermode "spirit" bears, who all require large tracts of land to survive. (Demarchi, Nelson, Kavanagh, Sims, Mann, 2013) The spruce-bark beetle is an insect that destroys spruce trees by tunneling into the bark of the trees. These beetles are widespread in the northern part of the ecoregion in states such as Alaska. [7] The beetle’s distribution and survival rate has increased in the last decade due to climate change. Invasive species are also rampant in the ecoregion. These foreign plants and animals disrupt naturally occurring species in the ecoregion. Several solutions have been enacted to solve the environmental threats of the Marine West Coast Forest. Public land ownership is positively correlated with environmental preservation, as seen by the parts of the ecoregion located in Alaska. [7] When land is privately owned, the most effective measures are education of the beautiful natural areas, smart land use, and planned efficient growth. (Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife, 2006)
The Marine West Coast Forests are located along the coast and some islands of northern California up to Alaska. The rise of the sea level will increase soil erosion of these marine areas. (Coastal Areas Impacts and Adaptation) Depending on to what degree the sea level will rise, the introduction of salt water to the soil in the marine forest can slow and or destroy the growth of marine forest plants as well as the habitat of forest animals. [8] Freshwater flow will greatly disrupt the ecology of the Marine West Coast Forest. The trend seems to be that wet regions are getting wetter and the dry regions are getting drier. (Song) The Marine West Coastal Region is a wet region that will most likely see these increases in precipitation levels.
The precipitation level increasing will change the stream chemistry of vital spawning areas for salmon. Spawning salmon are most successful when the water is cold and with a steady flow. (Coastal Areas Impacts & Adaptation) The rising temperature of the streams from rainfall instead of snowfall will be more likely to also develop and spread disease through salmon. (Coastal Areas Impacts & Adaptation) The estuaries, where the ocean and river water meet is a very vulnerable area. The rising sea level will bring more salt water into the estuaries. [8] The salinity of the water will increase further up rivers and this can alter the mixing and flushing rates of the estuary, increasing pollution dramatically. [8] The change of balance in an estuary will also decrease the buffer effect that estuaries have against storms. [8]
The following Level III ecoregions are nested within the Marine West Coast Forest:
Temperate rainforests are rainforests with coniferous or broadleaf forests that occur in the temperate zone and receive heavy rain.
The Pacific temperate rainforests of western North America is the largest temperate rain forest region on the planet as defined by the World Wildlife Fund. The Pacific temperate rainforests lie along the western side of the Pacific Coast Ranges along the Pacific Northwest Coast of North America from the Prince William Sound in Alaska through the British Columbia Coast to Northern California, and are part of the Nearctic realm, as also defined by the World Wildlife Fund. The Pacific temperate rain forests are characterized by a high amount of rainfall, in some areas more than 300 cm (10 ft) per year and moderate temperatures in both the summer and winter months.
Kenai Fjords National Park is an American national park that comprises the Harding Icefield, its outflowing glaciers, and coastal fjords and islands. The park covers an area of 669,984 acres on the Kenai Peninsula in south-central Alaska, west of the town of Seward.
The marbled murrelet is a small seabird from the North Pacific. It is a member of the family Alcidae, which includes auklets, guillemots, murres and puffins. It nests in old-growth forests or on the ground at higher latitudes where trees cannot grow. The marbled murrelet has declined in number since humans began logging its nest trees in the latter half of the 19th century. The decline of the marbled murrelet and its association with old-growth forests, at least in the southern part of its range, have made it a flagship species in the forest preservation movement.
The long-billed murrelet is a small seabird from the North Pacific. The genus name Brachyramphus is from Ancient Greek brakhus, "short", and rhamphos, "bill". The species name perdix is Latin for "partridge" Pallas described this auk as Magnitudine Perdicis. "Murrelet" is a diminutive of "murre", a word of uncertain origins, but which may imitate the call of the common guillemot.
Desolation Sound Marine Provincial Park is a provincial park in British Columbia, Canada. The park is distinguished by its many picturesque sheltered coves and anchorages, frequented by yachts and pleasure craft. The scenery consists of waterfalls, rugged glaciated peaks, and steep forested slopes that fall into the ocean.
Brachyramphus is a small genus of seabirds from the North Pacific. Brachyramphus is from Ancient Greek brakhus, "short", and rhamphos, "bill". In English the species are named as "murrelets"; this is a diminutive of "murre", a word of uncertain origins, but which may imitate the call of the common guillemot.
The Oregon Coast Range, often called simply the Coast Range and sometimes the Pacific Coast Range, is a mountain range, in the Pacific Coast Ranges physiographic region, in the U.S. state of Oregon along the Pacific Ocean. This north-south running range extends over 200 miles (320 km) from the Columbia River in the north on the border of Oregon and Washington, south to the middle fork of the Coquille River. It is 30 to 60 miles wide and averages around 1,500 feet (460 m) in elevation above sea level. The coast range has three main sections, a Northern, Central, and Southern.
The Pacific Maritime Ecozone, as defined by the Commission for Environmental Cooperation (CEC), is a Canadian terrestrial ecozone, spanning a strip approximately 200 kilometres wide along the British Columbia Coast, then narrowing along the border with Alaska. It also includes all marine islands of British Columbia and a small portion of the southwestern corner of the Yukon. Fourteen ecoregions comprise the Ecozone, ranging from the Mount Logan Ecoregion in the north to the Cascade Ecoregion and Lower Mainland Ecoregion in the south.
The Coast Range ecoregion is a Level III ecoregion designated by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in the U.S. states of Washington, Oregon, and California. It stretches along the Pacific Coast from the tip of the Olympic Peninsula in the north to the San Francisco Bay in the south, including Grays Harbor, Willapa Bay, and the Long Beach Peninsula in Washington, the entire length of the Oregon Coast, and the Northern California Coast. Named for the Coast Range mountains, it encompasses the lower elevations of the Olympic Mountains, the Oregon Coast Range, the Californian North Coast Ranges, and surrounding lowlands.
The Klamath Mountains ecoregion of Oregon and California lies inland and north of the Coast Range ecoregion, extending from the Umpqua River in the north to the Sacramento Valley in the south. It encompasses the highly dissected ridges, foothills, and valleys of the Klamath and Siskiyou Mountains. It corresponds to the Level III ecoregion designated by the Environmental Protection Agency and to the Klamath-Siskiyou forests ecoregion designated by the World Wide Fund for Nature.
The Ecology of the North Cascades is heavily influenced by the high elevation and rain shadow effects of the mountain range. The North Cascades is a section of the Cascade Range from the South Fork of the Snoqualmie River in Washington, United States, to the confluence of the Thompson and Fraser Rivers in British Columbia, Canada, where the range is officially called the Cascade Mountains but is usually referred to as the Canadian Cascades. The North Cascades Ecoregion is a Level III ecoregion in the Commission for Environmental Cooperation's classification system.
Ecotourism in the United States is commonly practiced in protected areas such as national parks and nature reserves. The principles and behaviors of ecotourism are slowly becoming more widespread in the United States; for example, hotels in some regions strive to be more sustainable.
The Kamchatka Taiga ecoregion is a "conifer island" in the middle of the Kamchatka Peninsula, along the Kamchatka River. It is the easternmost example of Siberian taiga. The region has unusual ecological conditions, a "snow forest" that combines low temperatures, high humidity and boreal forest with heavy snowfall. The local ecology is also affected by volcanic activity. The region is about 300 km long (north–south), and averages about 100 km west–east. It is in the Palearctic realm, and mostly in the Boreal forests/taiga ecoregion with a humid continental climate, cool summer climate. It covers 147,064 km2 (56,782 sq mi).
Puget lowland forests is a temperate coniferous forest ecoregion the Pacific coast of North America, as defined by the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) categorization system.
Pacific Coastal Mountain icefields and tundra is a tundra ecoregion in Alaska, British Columbia, and Yukon, as defined by the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) categorization system.
The Eastern Temperate Forests is a Level I ecoregion of North America designated by the Commission for Environmental Cooperation (CEC) in its North American Environmental Atlas. The region covers much of the Eastern and Midwestern United States, the U.S. Interior Highlands, and parts of Ontario, Quebec, and the Maritimes.
Mediterranean California is a Level I ecoregion of North America designated by the Commission for Environmental Cooperation (CEC) in its North American Environmental Atlas. The region is present only in California and Baja California.
The Northwestern Forested Mountains is a Level I ecoregion of North America designated by the Commission for Environmental Cooperation (CEC) in its North American Environmental Atlas.
The Taiga of North America is a Level I ecoregion of North America designated by the Commission for Environmental Cooperation (CEC) in its North American Environmental Atlas.