Insulin resistance (IR) is a pathological condition in which cells either fail to respond normally to the hormone insulin or downregulate insulin receptors in response to hyperinsulinemia.
Tumor necrosis factor ('TNF),also known as cachexin or cachectin,is a cytokine and a member of the TNF superfamily,which comprises various transmembrane proteins with a homologous TNF domain. Initially referred to as TNFα,this cytokine was the first to be identified as an adipokine,secreted by adipose tissue. TNF signaling occurs through two receptors:TNFR1 and TNFR2. TNFR1 is widely expressed across most cell types and is typically associated with pro-inflammatory and apoptotic signaling. In contrast,TNFR2 is mainly found on endothelial,epithelial,and immune cells,where it mediates anti-inflammatory responses and promotes cell proliferation.
Exercise physiology is the physiology of physical exercise. It is one of the allied health professions,and involves the study of the acute responses and chronic adaptations to exercise. Exercise physiologists are the highest qualified exercise professionals and utilise education,lifestyle intervention and specific forms of exercise to rehabilitate and manage acute and chronic injuries and conditions.
Adiponectin is a protein hormone and adipokine,which is involved in regulating glucose levels and fatty acid breakdown. In humans,it is encoded by the ADIPOQ gene and is produced primarily in adipose tissue,but also in muscle and even in the brain.
Resistin also known as adipose tissue-specific secretory factor (ADSF) or C/EBP-epsilon-regulated myeloid-specific secreted cysteine-rich protein (XCP1) is a cysteine-rich peptide hormone derived from adipose tissue that in humans is encoded by the RETN gene.
Interleukin 6 (IL-6) is an interleukin that acts as both a pro-inflammatory cytokine and an anti-inflammatory myokine. In humans,it is encoded by the IL6 gene.
A branched-chain amino acid (BCAA) is an amino acid having an aliphatic side-chain with a branch. Among the proteinogenic amino acids,there are three BCAAs:leucine,isoleucine,and valine. Non-proteinogenic BCAAs include 2-aminoisobutyric acid and alloisoleucine.
Glucose transporter type 4 (GLUT4),also known as solute carrier family 2,facilitated glucose transporter member 4,is a protein encoded,in humans,by the SLC2A4 gene. GLUT4 is the insulin-regulated glucose transporter found primarily in adipose tissues and striated muscle. The first evidence for this distinct glucose transport protein was provided by David James in 1988. The gene that encodes GLUT4 was cloned and mapped in 1989.
The unfolded protein response (UPR) is a cellular stress response related to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress. It has been found to be conserved between mammalian species,as well as yeast and worm organisms.
Sarcopenic obesity is a combination of two disease states,sarcopenia and obesity. Sarcopenia is the muscle mass/strength/physical function loss associated with increased age,and obesity is based off a weight to height ratio or body mass index (BMI) that is characterized by high body fat or being overweight.
Fibronectin type III domain-containing protein 5,the precursor of irisin,is a type I transmembrane glycoprotein that is encoded by the FNDC5 gene. Irisin is a cleaved version of FNDC5,named after the Greek messenger goddess Iris.
Michael Cowley FTSE is an Australian physiologist. He is best known for his mapping of the neural circuits involved in metabolism and obesity and diabetes treatment. He is a professor in the Department of Physiology at Monash University in the Faculty of Biomedical and Psychological Sciences. He is also a director of the Australian diabetes drug development company,Verva Inc,and director of the Monash Obesity &Diabetes Institute] (modi).
Anti-interleukin-6 agents are a class of therapeutics. Interleukin 6 is a cytokine relevant to many inflammatory diseases and many cancers. Hence,anti-IL6 agents have been sought. In rheumatoid arthritis they can help patients unresponsive to TNF inhibitors.
A myokine is one of several hundred cytokines or other small proteins and proteoglycan peptides that are produced and released by skeletal muscle cells in response to muscular contractions. They have autocrine,paracrine and/or endocrine effects;their systemic effects occur at picomolar concentrations.
The sympathoadrenal system is a physiological connection between the sympathetic nervous system and the adrenal medulla and is crucial in an organism's physiological response to outside stimuli. When the body receives sensory information,the sympathetic nervous system sends a signal to preganglionic nerve fibers,which activate the adrenal medulla through acetylcholine. Once activated,norepinephrine and epinephrine are released directly into the blood by adrenomedullary cells where they act as the bodily mechanism for "fight-or-flight" responses. Because of this,the sympathoadrenal system plays a large role in maintaining glucose levels,sodium levels,blood pressure,and various other metabolic pathways that couple with bodily responses to the environment. During numerous diseased states,such as hypoglycemia or even stress,the body's metabolic processes are skewed. The sympathoadrenal system works to return the body to homeostasis through the activation or inactivation of the adrenal gland. However,more severe disorders of the sympathoadrenal system such as pheochromocytoma can affect the body's ability to maintain a homeostatic state. In these cases,curative agents such as adrenergic agonists and antagonists are used to modify epinephrine and norepinephrine levels released by the adrenal medulla.
Epigenetics of physical exercise is the study of epigenetic modifications to the cell genome resulting from physical exercise. Environmental factors,including physical exercise,have been shown to have a beneficial influence on epigenetic modifications. Generally,it has been shown that acute and long-term exercise has a significant effect on DNA methylation,an important aspect of epigenetic modifications.
Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a type of metabolic disease characterized by hyperglycemia. It is caused by either defected insulin secretion or damaged biological function,or both. The high-level blood glucose for a long time will lead to dysfunction of a variety of tissues.
Hepatokines are proteins produced by liver cells (hepatocytes) that are secreted into the circulation and function as hormones across the organism. Research is mostly focused on hepatokines that play a role in the regulation of metabolic diseases such as diabetes and fatty liver and include:Adropin,ANGPTL4,Fetuin-A,Fetuin-B,FGF-21,Hepassocin,LECT2,RBP4,Selenoprotein P,Sex hormone-binding globulin.
An exerkine is a signaling molecule released in response to exercise that helps mediate systemic adaptations to exercise.
