Martin Nowak

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Martin Nowak
Dr. Martin Nowak.jpg
Nowak at Harvard in 2014
Born
Martin Andreas Nowak

April 7, 1965
Vienna, Austria
NationalityAustrian
Alma mater University of Vienna
Known for Evolution of cooperation, Evolutionary dynamics, Somatic evolution in cancer, Viral dynamics, Language evolution
Awards Weldon Memorial Prize
Albert Wander Prize
Akira Okubo Prize
Scientific career
Fields Mathematical biology
Institutions Harvard University
Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry
University of Oxford
Princeton University
Institute for Advanced Study
Thesis Stochastic strategies in the prisoner's dilemma  (1989)
Doctoral advisor Karl Sigmund
Doctoral students David G. Rand
Erez Lieberman Aiden [1]
Marc Lipsitch
Sebastian Bonhoeffer
Website www.martinnowak.com

Martin Andreas Nowak (born April 7, 1965 [2] ) [3] is an Austrian-born professor of mathematics and biology at Harvard University. He is one of the leading researchers in evolutionary dynamics. [3] Nowak has made contributions to the fields of evolutionary theory, cooperation, viral dynamics, and cancer dynamics.

Contents

Nowak held professorships at Oxford University and at the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton, before being recruited by Harvard in 2003. He was the director of Harvard's program for evolutionary dynamics from 2003 until 2020.

Early life and education

Nowak was born in Vienna, Austria. [3] He studied at Albertus Magnus Gymnasium and the University of Vienna, earning a doctorate in biochemistry and mathematics in 1989. He worked with Peter Schuster on quasi-species theory and with Karl Sigmund on evolution of cooperation. Nowak received the highest Austrian honors (Sub auspiciis Praesidentis) when awarded his degree. [4] [5] In 1993, he received his "Habilitation" at the Institute of Mathematics at the University of Vienna. In 2001, he was elected into the Austrian Academy of Sciences.

Career

From 1989 to 1998, Nowak worked at the University of Oxford with Robert May. First, he was an Erwin Schrödinger postdoctoral Scholar, then a Junior Research Fellow at Wolfson College, then a Junior Research Fellow at Keble College. From 1992, he was a Wellcome Trust Senior Research Fellow. [6] From 1997 to 1998, Nowak was a professor of mathematical biology. [7]

In 1998, Martin Nowak was recruited by the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton.

He was Head of the Institutes first Initiative in Theoretical Biology from 1998 until 2003.

In 2003, Nowak was recruited to Harvard University as Professor of Mathematics and Biology. [5] Nowak was co-director with Sarah Coakley of the Evolution and Theology of Cooperation project at Harvard University, sponsored by the Templeton Foundation. [8] where he was also a member of their Board of Advisers. [9]

Academic research

Nowak has authored books and scientific papers on topics in evolutionary game theory, cancer, viruses, infectious disease, the evolution of language, and the evolution of cooperation. [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] At Oxford, he helped to establish the fields of virus dynamics [16] and spatial games [17] (which later became evolutionary graph theory). He continued his collaboration with Karl Sigmund in game theory, proposing generous tit-for-tat [18] and win-stay, lose-shift, [19] inventing adaptive dynamics, [20] alternating games [21] and indirect reciprocity. [22] He collaborated with John Maynard Smith on genetic redundancy, [23] with Baruch Blumberg on hepatitis B virus, [24] with George Shaw and Andrew McMichael on HIV. [25] [26] He worked with Robert May on evolution of virulence. [27]

In 1990, Nowak and Robert May proposed a mathematical model which explained the puzzling delay between HIV infection and AIDS in terms of the evolution of different strains of the virus during individual infections, to the point where the genetic diversity of the virus reaches a threshold whereby the immune system can no longer control it. [28] This detailed quantitative approach depended on assumptions about the biology of HIV which were subsequently confirmed by experiment. [29]

At Harvard, Nowak continued his work on virus dynamics, cancer dynamics, and evolutionary game theory. In 2004, he established evolutionary game dynamics in finite populations. [30] In 2005 and 2006 he wrote key papers establishing evolutionary graph theory. [31] In 2006, he suggested that cooperation was a third fundamental principle of evolution beside mutation and selection. [32] In 2007, he proposed prelife - a theory for the origin of life. [33] In 2008 and 2009 he suggested that positive interaction, but not punishment, promotes evolution of cooperation. [34]

In a paper in Science in 2006, Nowak enunciated and unified the mathematical rules for the five understood bases of the evolution of cooperation (kin selection, direct reciprocity, indirect reciprocity, network reciprocity, and group selection). Nowak suggests that evolution is constructive because of cooperation, and that we might add “natural cooperation” as a third fundamental principle of evolution beside mutation and natural selection. [35]

In a paper featured on the front cover of Nature in 2007, Nowak and colleagues demonstrated that the transition of irregular verbs to regular verbs in English over time obeys a simple inverse-square law, thus providing one of the first quantitative laws in the evolution of language. [36]

In 2010 a paper by Nowak, E. O. Wilson, and Corina Tarnita, in Nature, argued that standard natural selection theory represents a simpler and superior approach to kin selection theory in the evolution of eusociality. [37] This work has led to many comments including strong criticism from proponents of inclusive fitness theory. [38] [39] [40] [41] Nowak maintains that the findings of the paper are conclusive and that the field of social evolution should move beyond inclusive fitness theory. [42]

He has over 300 scientific publications, of which 40 are in Nature and 15 in Science . [43]

Nowak's research interests include:

Published books

Nowak's first book Virus Dynamics: Mathematical Principles of Immunology and Virology, written with Robert May, was published by Oxford University Press in 2001. [44] Nowak's 2006 book Evolutionary Dynamics: Exploring the Equations of Life discusses the evolution of various biological processes. Reviewing Evolutionary Dynamics in Nature, Sean Nee called it a "unique book" that "should be on the shelf of anyone who has, or thinks they might have, an interest in theoretical biology." [45] The book received the Association of American Publishers' R.R. Hawkins Award for the Outstanding Professional, Reference or Scholarly Work of 2006. [46]

Nowak's book SuperCooperators: The Mathematics of Evolution, Altruism and Human Behaviour (Or, Why We Need Each Other to Succeed), co-authored with Roger Highfield, was published in 2011. SuperCooperators is both an autobiography of Nowak and a popular presentation of his work in mathematical biology on the evolution of cooperation, the origin of life, and the evolution of language. In the book, Nowak argues that cooperation is the third fundamental principle of evolution, next to mutation and natural selection. SuperCooperators received positive reviews in The New York Times , Nature, and the Financial Times . [47] [48] [49]

With Sarah Coakley, Nowak edited the 2013 book Evolution, Games, and God: The Principle of Cooperation, published by Harvard University Press. The volume features articles from experts in multiple fields who explore the interplay between theology and evolutionary theory as pertaining to cooperation and altruism. [50]

Awards

Nowak is a corresponding member of the Austrian Academy of Sciences. He won the Weldon Memorial Prize, the Albert Wander Prize, the Akira Okubo Prize, the David Starr Jordan Prize [51] and the Henry Dale Prize.

Personal life

Nowak is a Roman Catholic. [52] In a 2007 lecture at Harvard, he argued that science and religion occupied different but complementary roles in humans' search for meaning, stating: "Science and religion are two essential components in the search for truth. Denying either is a barren approach." [53]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Evolution</span> Change in the heritable characteristics of biological populations

Evolution is the change in the heritable characteristics of biological populations over successive generations. Evolution occurs when evolutionary processes such as natural selection and genetic drift act on genetic variation, resulting in certain characteristics becoming more or less common within a population over successive generations. The process of evolution has given rise to biodiversity at every level of biological organisation.

<i>The Evolution of Cooperation</i> 1984 book by Robert Axelrod

The Evolution of Cooperation is a 1984 book written by political scientist Robert Axelrod that expands upon a paper of the same name written by Axelrod and evolutionary biologist W.D. Hamilton. The article's summary addresses the issue in terms of "cooperation in organisms, whether bacteria or primates".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kin selection</span> Evolutionary strategy favoring relatives

Kin selection is a process whereby natural selection favours a trait due to its positive effects on the reproductive success of an organism's relatives, even when at a cost to the organism's own survival and reproduction. Kin selection can lead to the evolution of altruistic behaviour. It is related to inclusive fitness, which combines the number of offspring produced with the number an individual can ensure the production of by supporting others. A broader definition of kin selection includes selection acting on interactions between individuals who share a gene of interest even if the gene is not shared due to common ancestry.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Group selection</span> Proposed mechanism of evolution

Group selection is a proposed mechanism of evolution in which natural selection acts at the level of the group, instead of at the level of the individual or gene.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Eugene Koonin</span> American biologist

Eugene Viktorovich Koonin is a Russian-American biologist and Senior Investigator at the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). He is a recognised expert in the field of evolutionary and computational biology.

Antigenic drift is a kind of genetic variation in viruses, arising from the accumulation of mutations in the virus genes that code for virus-surface proteins that host antibodies recognize. This results in a new strain of virus particles that is not effectively inhibited by the antibodies that prevented infection by previous strains. This makes it easier for the changed virus to spread throughout a partially immune population. Antigenic drift occurs in both influenza A and influenza B viruses.

In evolutionary biology, inclusive fitness is one of two metrics of evolutionary success as defined by W. D. Hamilton in 1964:

Evolutionary game theory (EGT) is the application of game theory to evolving populations in biology. It defines a framework of contests, strategies, and analytics into which Darwinian competition can be modelled. It originated in 1973 with John Maynard Smith and George R. Price's formalisation of contests, analysed as strategies, and the mathematical criteria that can be used to predict the results of competing strategies.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Marc Kirschner</span> American biologist

Marc Wallace Kirschner is an American cell biologist and biochemist and the founding chair of the Department of Systems Biology at Harvard Medical School. He is known for major discoveries in cell and developmental biology related to the dynamics and function of the cytoskeleton, the regulation of the cell cycle, and the process of signaling in embryos, as well as the evolution of the vertebrate body plan. He is a leader in applying mathematical approaches to biology. He is the John Franklin Enders University Professor at Harvard University. In 2021 he was elected to the American Philosophical Society.

In biology, altruism refers to behaviour by an individual that increases the fitness of another individual while decreasing their own. Altruism in this sense is different from the philosophical concept of altruism, in which an action would only be called "altruistic" if it was done with the conscious intention of helping another. In the behavioural sense, there is no such requirement. As such, it is not evaluated in moral terms—it is the consequences of an action for reproductive fitness that determine whether the action is considered altruistic, not the intentions, if any, with which the action is performed.

Evolutionary graph theory is an area of research lying at the intersection of graph theory, probability theory, and mathematical biology. Evolutionary graph theory is an approach to studying how topology affects evolution of a population. That the underlying topology can substantially affect the results of the evolutionary process is seen most clearly in a paper by Erez Lieberman, Christoph Hauert and Martin Nowak.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Non-cellular life</span> Life that has no cellular structure

Non-cellular life, also known as acellular life, is life that exists without a cellular structure for at least part of its life cycle. Historically, most definitions of life postulated that an organism must be composed of one or more cells, but this is for some no longer considered necessary, and modern criteria allow for forms of life based on other structural arrangements.

In evolution, cooperation is the process where groups of organisms work or act together for common or mutual benefits. It is commonly defined as any adaptation that has evolved, at least in part, to increase the reproductive success of the actor's social partners. For example, territorial choruses by male lions discourage intruders and are likely to benefit all contributors.

A viral quasispecies is a population structure of viruses with a large number of variant genomes. Quasispecies result from high mutation rates as mutants arise continually and change in relative frequency as viral replication and selection proceeds.

Reciprocity in evolutionary biology refers to mechanisms whereby the evolution of cooperative or altruistic behaviour may be favoured by the probability of future mutual interactions. A corollary is how a desire for revenge can harm the collective and therefore be naturally deselected.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hypercycle (chemistry)</span> Cyclic sequence of self-reproducing single cycles

In chemistry, a hypercycle is an abstract model of organization of self-replicating molecules connected in a cyclic, autocatalytic manner. It was introduced in an ordinary differential equation (ODE) form by the Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner Manfred Eigen in 1971 and subsequently further extended in collaboration with Peter Schuster. It was proposed as a solution to the error threshold problem encountered during modelling of replicative molecules that hypothetically existed on the primordial Earth. As such, it explained how life on Earth could have begun using only relatively short genetic sequences, which in theory were too short to store all essential information. The hypercycle is a special case of the replicator equation. The most important properties of hypercycles are autocatalytic growth competition between cycles, once-for-ever selective behaviour, utilization of small selective advantage, rapid evolvability, increased information capacity, and selection against parasitic branches.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Evolving digital ecological network</span>

Evolving digital ecological networks are webs of interacting, self-replicating, and evolving computer programs that experience the same major ecological interactions as biological organisms. Despite being computational, these programs evolve quickly in an open-ended way, and starting from only one or two ancestral organisms, the formation of ecological networks can be observed in real-time by tracking interactions between the constantly evolving organism phenotypes. These phenotypes may be defined by combinations of logical computations that digital organisms perform and by expressed behaviors that have evolved. The types and outcomes of interactions between phenotypes are determined by task overlap for logic-defined phenotypes and by responses to encounters in the case of behavioral phenotypes. Biologists use these evolving networks to study active and fundamental topics within evolutionary ecology.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Matjaž Perc</span> Professor of Physics at the University of Maribor

Matjaž Perc is Professor of Physics at the University of Maribor in Slovenia, and director of the Complex Systems Center Maribor. He is member of Academia Europaea and among top 1% most cited physicists according to Thomson Reuters Highly Cited Researchers. He is Outstanding Referee of the Physical Review and Physical Review Letters journals, and Distinguished Referee of EPL. He received the Young Scientist Award for Socio-and Econophysics in 2015. His research has been widely reported in the media and professional literature.

Krishnendu Chatterjee is an Indian computer scientist who is currently a professor at the Institute of Science and Technology Austria (ISTA). He is known for his contributions to theoretical computer science, especially in algorithmic game theory, evolutionary game theory, logics and automata theory.

Evolutionary therapy is a subfield of evolutionary medicine that utilizes concepts from evolutionary biology in management of diseases caused by evolving entities such as cancer and microbial infections. These evolving disease agents adapt to selective pressure introduced by treatment, allowing them to develop resistance to therapy, making it ineffective.

References

  1. ↑ Martin Nowak at the Mathematics Genealogy Project
  2. ↑ Nowak, Martin A.; Highfield, Roger (2012). SuperCooperators: altruism, evolution, and why we need each other to succeed (1. Free Press trade paperback ed.). New York, NY: Free Press. ISBN   978-1-4516-2663-6.
  3. 1 2 3 Wax, Heather (October 15, 2007). "Cooperation counts for math professor". The Boston Globe . Archived from the original on July 3, 2011. Retrieved January 8, 2024. Nowak, 42, a Harvard University mathematician and biologist, is at the forefront of a new field called evolutionary dynamics, in which Darwin's idea of natural selection is formulated in terms of math equations.
  4. ↑ Witzmann, Erich (2011-04-03). "Martin Nowak: "Junge sollen unabhängig forschen"". Die Presse (in German). Retrieved 2020-06-08.
  5. 1 2 Anderson, Christina M. (2002-10-01). "University Lures Specialist In Interdisciplinary Science". The Harvard Crimson. Retrieved 2020-10-10.
  6. ↑ Payne, R J; Nowak, M A; Blumberg, B S (25 June 1996). "The dynamics of hepatitis B virus infection". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 93 (13): 6542–6546. Bibcode:1996PNAS...93.6542P. doi: 10.1073/pnas.93.13.6542 . PMC   39060 . PMID   8692852.[ non-primary source needed ]
  7. ↑ Nowak, Martin A.; Sigmund, Karl (June 1998). "Evolution of indirect reciprocity by image scoring". Nature. 393 (6685): 573–577. Bibcode:1998Natur.393..573N. doi:10.1038/31225. PMID   9634232. S2CID   4395576.[ non-primary source needed ]
  8. ↑ Evolution and Theology of Cooperation
  9. ↑ About Us : Who We Are : Board of Advisors Archived 2007-01-23 at the Wayback Machine
  10. ↑ Nowak, M.A. (2006). "Five rules for the evolution of cooperation". Science. 314 (5805): 1560–1563. Bibcode:2006Sci...314.1560N. doi:10.1126/science.1133755. PMC   3279745 . PMID   17158317.
  11. ↑ Wei, X.; Ghosh, S.K.; Taylor, M.E.; Nowak, M.A.; Hahn, B.H.; Saag, M.S.; Shaw, G.M. (1995). "Viral dynamics in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection". Nature. 373 (6510): 117–122. Bibcode:1995Natur.373..117W. doi:10.1038/373117a0. PMID   7529365. S2CID   4343212.
  12. ↑ Reiter, J.G.; Makohon-Moore, A.P.; Gerold, J.M.; Heyde, A.; Iacobuzio-Donahue, C.A.; Vogelstein, B.; Nowak, M.A. (1995). "Viral dynamics in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection". Nature. 373 (6406): 117–122. doi:10.1126/science.aat7171. PMC   6329287 . PMID   30190408.
  13. ↑ Nowak, M.A.; May, R.M. (2018). "Minimal functional driver gene heterogeneity among untreated metastases". Science. 361 (6406): 1033–1037. Bibcode:1992Natur.359..826N. doi:10.1038/359826a0. PMC   6329287 . PMID   30190408.
  14. ↑ Nowak, Martin (October 2006). Evolutionary Dynamics: Exploring the Equations of Life. Belknap Press. ISBN   978-0-674-02338-3.
  15. ↑ Michel, J.B.; Shen, Y.K.; Aiden, A.P.; Nowak, M.A.; Aiden, E.L. (2011). "Quantitative analysis of culture using millions of digitized books". Science. 331 (6014): 176–182. Bibcode:1992Natur.359..826N. doi:10.1038/359826a0. PMC   3279742 . PMID   21163965.
  16. ↑ Nowak, Martin A.; Anderson, Roy M.; McLean, Angela R.; Wolfs, Tom F. W.; Goudsmit, Jaap; May, Robert M. (15 November 1991). "Antigenic Diversity Thresholds and the Development of AIDS". Science. 254 (5034): 963–969. Bibcode:1991Sci...254..963N. doi:10.1126/science.1683006. PMID   1683006.[ non-primary source needed ]
  17. ↑ Nowak, Martin A.; May, Robert M. (October 1992). "Evolutionary games and spatial chaos". Nature. 359 (6398): 826–829. Bibcode:1992Natur.359..826N. doi:10.1038/359826a0. S2CID   4328667.[ non-primary source needed ]
  18. ↑ Nowak, Martin A.; Sigmund, Karl (January 1992). "Tit for tat in heterogeneous populations". Nature. 355 (6357): 250–253. Bibcode:1992Natur.355..250N. doi:10.1038/355250a0. S2CID   4281385.[ non-primary source needed ]
  19. ↑ Nowak, Martin; Sigmund, Karl (July 1993). "A strategy of win-stay, lose-shift that outperforms tit-for-tat in the Prisoner's Dilemma game". Nature. 364 (6432): 56–58. Bibcode:1993Natur.364...56N. doi:10.1038/364056a0. PMID   8316296. S2CID   4238908.[ non-primary source needed ]
  20. ↑ Nowak, Martin; Sigmund, Karl (September 1990). "The evolution of stochastic strategies in the Prisoner's Dilemma". Acta Applicandae Mathematicae. 20 (3): 247–265. doi:10.1007/BF00049570. S2CID   121951518.[ non-primary source needed ]
  21. ↑ Nowak, Martin A.; Sigmund, Karl (May 1994). "The Alternating Prisoner's Dilemma". Journal of Theoretical Biology. 168 (2): 219–226. Bibcode:1994JThBi.168..219N. doi:10.1006/jtbi.1994.1101.[ non-primary source needed ]
  22. ↑ Nowak, Martin A.; Sigmund, Karl (June 1998). "Evolution of indirect reciprocity by image scoring". Nature. 393 (6685): 573–577. Bibcode:1998Natur.393..573N. doi:10.1038/31225. PMID   9634232. S2CID   4395576.[ non-primary source needed ]
  23. ↑ Nowak, Martin A.; Boerlijst, Maarten C.; Cooke, Jonathan; Smith, John Maynard (July 1997). "Evolution of genetic redundancy". Nature. 388 (6638): 167–171. doi: 10.1038/40618 . PMID   9217155.[ non-primary source needed ]
  24. ↑ Payne, R J; Nowak, M A; Blumberg, B S (25 June 1996). "The dynamics of hepatitis B virus infection". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 93 (13): 6542–6546. Bibcode:1996PNAS...93.6542P. doi: 10.1073/pnas.93.13.6542 . PMC   39060 . PMID   8692852.[ non-primary source needed ]
  25. ↑ Wei, Xiping; Ghosh, Sajal K.; Taylor, Maria E.; Johnson, Victoria A.; Emini, Emilio A.; Deutsch, Paul; Lifson, Jeffrey D.; Bonhoeffer, Sebastian; Nowak, Martin A.; Hahn, Beatrice H.; Saag, Michael S.; Shaw, George M. (January 1995). "Viral dynamics in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection". Nature. 373 (6510): 117–122. Bibcode:1995Natur.373..117W. doi:10.1038/373117a0. PMID   7529365. S2CID   4343212.
  26. ↑ Nowak, Martin A.; McMichael, Andrew J. (August 1995). "How HIV Defeats the Immune System". Scientific American. 273 (2): 58–65. Bibcode:1995SciAm.273b..58N. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0895-58.[ non-primary source needed ]
  27. ↑ Nowak, M. A.; May, R. M. (22 January 1994). "Superinfection and the evolution of parasite virulence". Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences. 255 (1342): 81–89. doi:10.1098/rspb.1994.0012. PMID   8153140. S2CID   44489629.
  28. ↑ Eigen, M.; Nieselt-Struwe, K. (1990). "How old is the immunodeficiency virus?". AIDS. 4: S95–7. doi:10.1097/00002030-199001001-00014. PMID   2152591.
  29. ↑ See Evolutionary Dynamics p171, etc.
  30. ↑ https://dash.harvard.edu/handle/1/4686799
  31. ↑ Lieberman, Erez; Hauert, Christoph; Nowak, Martin A. (January 2005). "Evolutionary dynamics on graphs". Nature. 433 (7023): 312–316. Bibcode:2005Natur.433..312L. doi:10.1038/nature03204. PMID   15662424. S2CID   4386820.[ non-primary source needed ]
  32. ↑ Nowak, M. A. (2006). "Five rules for the evolution of cooperation". Science. 314 (5805): 1560–1563. Bibcode:2006Sci...314.1560N. doi:10.1126/science.1133755. PMC   3279745 . PMID   17158317.
  33. ↑ Nowak, Martin A.; Ohtsuki, Hisashi (2008). "Prevolutionary dynamics and the origin of evolution". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 105 (39): 14924–14927. Bibcode:2008PNAS..10514924N. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0806714105 . PMC   2567469 . PMID   18791073.
  34. ↑ Dreber, Anna; Rand, David G.; Fudenberg, Drew; Nowak, Martin A. (2008). "Winners don't punish". Nature. 452 (7185): 348–351. Bibcode:2008Natur.452..348D. doi:10.1038/nature06723. PMC   2292414 . PMID   18354481.
  35. ↑ Nowak, M. A. (2006). "Five Rules for the Evolution of Cooperation". Science. 314 (5805): 1560–1563. Bibcode:2006Sci...314.1560N. doi:10.1126/science.1133755. PMC   3279745 . PMID   17158317.
  36. ↑ Lieberman, E.; Michel, J. B.; Jackson, J.; Tang, T.; Nowak, M. A. (2007). "Quantifying the evolutionary dynamics of language". Nature. 449 (7163): 713–716. Bibcode:2007Natur.449..713L. doi:10.1038/nature06137. PMC   2460562 . PMID   17928859.
  37. ↑ Nowak, M. A.; Tarnita, C. E.; Wilson, E. O. (2010). "The evolution of eusociality". Nature. 466 (7310): 1057–1062. Bibcode:2010Natur.466.1057N. doi:10.1038/nature09205. PMC   3279739 . PMID   20740005.
  38. ↑ Krakauer, D. C.; Flack, J. C. (2010). "Better living through physics". Nature. 467 (7316): 661. Bibcode:2010Natur.467..661K. doi: 10.1038/467661a . PMID   20930827.
  39. ↑ Gadagkar, R (2010). "Sociobiology in turmoil again". Current Science. 99: 1036–1041.
  40. ↑ Rousset, F.; Lion, S. (2011). "Much ado about nothing: Nowak et al.'s charge against inclusive fitness theory". Journal of Evolutionary Biology. 24 (6): 1386–1392. doi:10.1111/j.1420-9101.2011.02251.x. PMID   21457170. S2CID   10363508. Despite their claims of novelty and the media frenzy, [Nowak, Tarnita and Wilson]'s article is actually a collection of worn-out arguments and thus represents a conceptual and technical step backward.
  41. ↑ Abbot, P.; Abe, J.; Alcock, J.; et al. (2011). "Inclusive fitness theory and eusociality". Nature. 471 (7339): E1–E4. Bibcode:2011Natur.471E...1A. doi:10.1038/nature09831. PMC   3836173 . PMID   21430721. [We] believe that [Nowak, Tarnita and Wilson's] arguments are based upon a misunderstanding of evolutionary theory and a misrepresentation of the empirical literature.
  42. ↑ Nowak, M. A.; Tarnita, C. E.; Wilson, E. O. (2011). "Nowak et al. Reply" (PDF). Nature. 471 (7339): E9. Bibcode:2011Natur.471E...9N. doi:10.1038/nature09836. S2CID   52856286.
  43. ↑ "Martin A. Nowak Publications". Archived from the original on 2006-08-27.
  44. ↑ "Virus dynamics - Martin A. Nowak; Robert May - Oxford University Press". Oxford University Press . Archived from the original on January 8, 2024. Retrieved January 8, 2024.
  45. ↑ Nee, Sean (November 1, 2006). "Beautiful models". Nature . 444: 37. doi:10.1038/444037a . Retrieved January 8, 2024.
  46. ↑ "ASSOCIATION OF AMERICAN PUBLISHERS ANNOUNCES THE WINNERS OF THE 2006 PSP AWARDS FOR EXCELLENCE" (PDF). Harvard University . February 6, 2007. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 16, 2008. Retrieved January 8, 2024.
  47. ↑ Harman, Oren (April 8, 2011). "How Evolution Explains Altruism". The New York Times . Archived from the original on December 14, 2023. Retrieved January 8, 2024.
  48. ↑ Milinski, Manfred (March 16, 2011). "Biology: A revolution in evolution". Nature . 471: 294–295. doi:10.1038/471294b . Retrieved January 8, 2024.
  49. ↑ Willetts, David (April 25, 2011). "The invisible hand that binds us all" . Financial Times . Retrieved January 8, 2024.
  50. ↑ "Evolution, Games, and God — Harvard University Press". Harvard University Press . Archived from the original on January 8, 2024. Retrieved January 8, 2024.
  51. ↑ "David Starr Jordan Prize recipients". Archived from the original on 2014-08-25. Retrieved 2007-02-15.
  52. ↑ Ohlson, Kristin (October 25, 2012). "The Cooperation Instinct". Discover . Archived from the original on June 4, 2023. Retrieved January 8, 2024.
  53. ↑ Powell, Alvin (March 15, 2007). "Can science, religion coexist in peace?". The Harvard Gazette . Archived from the original on September 22, 2023. Retrieved January 8, 2024.
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