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A misdemeanor is any "lesser" criminal act in some common law legal systems. Misdemeanors are generally punished less severely than more serious felonies,but theoretically more so than administrative infractions and regulatory offences. Typically misdemeanors are punished with monetary fines or community service.
Criminal justice is the delivery of justice to those who have been accused of committing crimes. The criminal justice system is a series of government agencies and institutions. Goals include the rehabilitation of offenders,preventing other crimes,and moral support for victims. The primary institutions of the criminal justice system are the police,prosecution and defense lawyers,the courts and the prisons system.
The prison-industrial complex (PIC) is a term,coined after the "military-industrial complex" of the 1950s,used by scholars and activists to describe the relationship between a government and the various businesses that benefit from institutions of incarceration.
In the United States,habitual offender laws have been implemented in the United States since at least 1952,and are part of the United States Justice Department's Anti-Violence Strategy. These laws require a person who is convicted of an offense and who has one or two other previous serious convictions to serve a mandatory life sentence in prison,with or without parole depending on the jurisdiction. The purpose of the laws is to drastically increase the punishment of those who continue to commit offenses after being convicted of one or two serious crimes.
Incarceration in the United States is a primary form of punishment and rehabilitation for the commission of felony and other offenses. The United States has the largest prison population in the world,and the highest per-capita incarceration rate. One out of every 5 people imprisoned across the world is incarcerated in the United States. In 2018 in the US,there were 698 people incarcerated per 100,000;this includes the incarceration rate for adults or people tried as adults. In 2016,2.2 million Americans were incarcerated,which means for every 100,000 there are 655 who are currently inmates. Prison,parole,and probation operations generate an $81 billion annual cost to U.S. taxpayers,while police and court costs,bail bond fees,and prison phone fees generate another $100 billion in costs that are paid by individuals.
Recidivism is the act of a person repeating an undesirable behavior after they have experienced negative consequences of that behavior. It is also used to refer to the percentage of former prisoners who are rearrested for a similar offense.
Jonathan Simon, JD/PhD,is the Lance Robbins Professor of Criminal Justice Law and former Associate Dean of the Jurisprudence and Social Policy Program at the UC Berkeley School of Law. Simon’s scholarship concerns the role of crime and criminal justice in governing contemporary societies,risk and the law,and the history of the interdisciplinary study of law. His other interests include criminology;penology;sociology;insurance models of governing risk;governance;the origins and consequences of,and solutions to,the California prison "crisis";parole;prisons;capital punishment;immigration detention;and the warehousing of incarcerated people.
Incapacitation in the context of criminal sentencing philosophy is one of the functions of punishment. It involves capital punishment,sending an offender to prison,or possibly restricting their freedom in the community,to protect society and prevent that person from committing further crimes. Incarceration,as the primary mechanism for incapacitation,is also used as to try to deter future offending.
Race in the United States criminal justice system refers to the unique experiences and disparities in the United States in regard to the policing and prosecuting of various races. There have been different outcomes for different racial groups in convicting and sentencing felons in the United States criminal justice system. Experts and analysts have debated the relative importance of different factors that have led to these disparities.
In September 2013,the incarceration rate of the United States of America was the highest in the world at 716 per 100,000 of the national population;by 2019 it had fallen to 419 in state and federal prisons per 100,000. Between 2019 and 2020,the United States saw a significant drop in the total number of incarcerations. State and federal prison and local jail incarcerations dropped by 14% from 2.1 million in 2019 to 1.8 million in mid-2020. While the United States represents about 4.2 percent of the world's population,it houses around 20 percent of the world's prisoners. Corrections cost around $74 billion in 2007 according to the U.S. Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS). According to the Justice Expenditures and Employment in the United States,2017 report release by BJS,it's estimated that county and municipal governments spent roughly US$30 billion on corrections in 2017.
Norval Ramsden Morris (1923–2004) was an Australian-educated United States law professor,criminologist,and advocate for criminal justice and mental health reform,and a former Dean of the University of Chicago Law School.
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Sir Anthony Edward Bottoms FBA is a British criminologist. He is life fellow at Fitzwilliam College,Cambridge,having previously been a Wolfson Professor of Criminology at the Institute of Criminology in the Faculty of Law at the University of Cambridge from 1984 to 2006 and until December 2007 a professor of criminology jointly at the universities of Cambridge and Sheffield.
The New Jim Crow:Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness is a book by Michelle Alexander,a civil rights litigator and legal scholar. The book discusses race-related issues specific to African-American males and mass incarceration in the United States,but Alexander noted that the discrimination faced by African-American males is prevalent among other minorities and socio-economically disadvantaged populations. Alexander's central premise,from which the book derives its title,is that "mass incarceration is,metaphorically,the New Jim Crow".
Punishment in Australia arises when an individual has been accused or convicted of breaking the law through the Australian criminal justice system. Australia uses prisons,as well as community corrections,When awaiting trial,prisoners may be kept in specialised remand centres or within other prisons.
This article discusses the incarceration of women in correctional facilities.
Across the world,625,000 women and children are being held in penal institutions with the female prison population growing on all five continents.
Criminal justice reform addresses structural issues in criminal justice systems such as racial profiling,police brutality,overcriminalization,mass incarceration,and recidivism. Reforms can take place at any point where the criminal justice system intervenes in citizens’lives,including lawmaking,policing,sentencing and incarceration. Criminal justice reform can also address the collateral consequences of conviction,including disenfranchisement or lack of access to housing or employment,that may restrict the rights of individuals with criminal records.
Valerie Jenness is an author,researcher,public policy advisor,and professor in the Department of Criminology,Law and Society and in the Department of Sociology at the University of California,Irvine (UCI). Jenness is currently a visiting professor in the Department of Sociology at the University of California,Santa Barbara (UCSB) and prior to that,was a senior visiting scholar at the Institute for Research on Women and Gender at the University of Michigan. Jenness served as dean of the School of Social Ecology from 2009 to 2015 and chair of the Department of Criminology,Law and Society from 2001-2006. Jenness is credited with conducting the first systemic study of transgender women in men's prisons.
Malign Neglect:Race,Crime,and Punishment in America is a book about race in the United States criminal justice system by Michael Tonry,a criminologist at the University of Minnesota. It was published in 1995 by Oxford University Press. In it,Tonry criticizes "tough-on-crime" policies in the United States,arguing that they have had disproportionately negative effects on the education and employment prospects of African-American men.
Public criminology is an approach to criminology that disseminates criminological research beyond academia to broader audiences,such as criminal justice practitioners and the general public. Public criminology is closely tied with “public sociology”,and draws on a long line of intellectuals engaging in public interventions related to crime and justice. Some forms of public criminology are conducted through methods such as classroom education,academic conferences,public lectures,“news-making criminology”,government hearings,newspapers,radio and television broadcasting and press releases. Advocates of public criminology argue that the energies of criminologists should be directed towards "conducting and disseminating research on crime,law,and deviance in dialogue with affected communities." Public criminologists focus on reshaping the image of the criminal and work with communities to find answers to pressing questions. Proponents of public criminology see it as potentially narrowing "the yawning gap between public perceptions and the best available scientific evidence on issues of public concern",a problem they see as especially pertinent to matters of crime and punishment.
References
- 1 2 "Michael Tonry". University of Minnesota Law School. Retrieved 12 February 2016.
- 1 2 3 "Michael Tonry CV" (PDF). University of Minnesota Law School. Retrieved 12 February 2016.
- ↑ Liptak, Adam (2008-04-23). "U.S. prison population dwarfs that of other nations". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved 2017-12-18.
- ↑ Tonry, Michael (2005). "Punishment and Crime across Space and Time". Crime and Justice. 33: 1–39. doi:10.1086/655361. JSTOR 3488331. S2CID 148141381.
- ↑ Coates, Ta-Nehisi (October 2015). "The Black Family in the Age of Mass Incarceration". The Atlantic. Retrieved 12 February 2016.
- ↑ Butterfield, Fox (5 October 1995). "More Blacks in Their 20s Have Trouble With the Law". New York Times. Retrieved 12 February 2016.
- ↑ Ajunwa, Ifeoma; Onwuachi-Willig, Angela (2018). "Combating Discrimination Against the Formerly Incarcerated in the Labor Market". Northwestern University Law Review. 112 (6): 1402, n. 85. Retrieved 24 February 2020.
- ↑ Maki, John (30 September 2013). "Mandatory minimum prison sentences will not solve Chicago's epidemic of gun violence". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 12 February 2016.
- ↑ Denvir, Daniel (6 November 2015). "What Clinton and Sanders both get wrong about gun control". Salon. Retrieved 12 February 2016.
- ↑ Liptak, Adam (23 April 2008). "U.S. prison population dwarfs that of other nations". New York Times. Retrieved 12 February 2016.
- ↑ Schlosser, Eric (December 1998). "The Prison-Industrial Complex". The Atlantic. Retrieved 12 February 2016.
