Pacing strategies in track and field are the varied strategies which runners use to distribute their energy throughout a race. Optimal strategies exist and have been studied for the different events of track and field. These optimal strategies differ for runners in sprint events, such as the 100 meters, runners in middle-distance events, such as the 800 meters or the mile run, [1] and runners in long-distance events, such as the 5000m [2] or marathon. [3] Additionally, pacing typically differs between different styles of races. For instance, in a time trial, where the goal of a racer is simply to run the fastest time, participants will typically employ the aforementioned optimal pacing strategy. However, in a championship race, where the goal of the racer is to win, the pace is typically slow in the beginning of the race and gradually speeds up for a sprint finish, often meaning the race is run with a negative split. [4] Typically, to run a world record, the runner must employ a near-optimal pacing strategy. [5]
ThresholdPacing
Threshold pacing is a strategy used for the event such as the 400 meters run, and the 400 meter relay. This pacing style is about putting in a lot of effort for a long period of time. [6] The greater the intensity that is put into the run will carry out into the finish of this run. Many runners attack the 400 meter dash at the full 100%, but by starting with a medium to high running pace such as 75%, it then works up to all out, to about 100%. [7] Using threshold running in an event such as the 400 meters it can be very beneficial. Starting off in a 400 meter run, not going all out at the beginning is key as runners have to keep a steady balance of fast running and pacing, just like threshold running. Once it is the last home stretch, that last 100 meters it's running all out breaking that threshold running and going up to that 100%.
Track and field racers have a variety of options in the ways they can choose to pace their races.
Even-splitting is a strategy in which the racer attempts to hit the same split in every lap of the race. The racer tries to run an "even" pace during the entire race. In long-distance events, this can often be an optimal strategy. [8]
Positive-splitting is a racing strategy that involves completing the first half of a race faster than the second half. Typically, the runner goes out at a pace faster than he or she can maintain for the entire race, leading to a slower end of the race. Positive-splitting can be employed as a tactic, or can simply be a byproduct of an overambitious early pace.
Negative-splitting is a racing strategy that involves completing the second half of a race faster than the first half. The racer runs slow in the beginning, and gradually runs faster as the race progresses. This is typically seen as a conservative racing strategy, but in distance events, many world records have been set with a slight negative split. [9]
Sit-and-kick, a related strategy to negative-splitting, is one in which the racer typically sits in the pack of the race, not taking the lead or going very fast, and then attempts to "kick" or sprint by the other racers during the last laps of the race. The sit-and-kick can be employed by individual runners or, in the case of many championship races, the entire field may attempt to sit-and-kick, [10] thus leading to drastically slow times for the first few laps and faster than normal times for the last laps.
While all of the above strategies can be employed, certain pacing strategies, for physiological reasons, will yield the fastest times.
For the 100m and 200m events, pacing is not a factor. Because the race is so short, racers simply run at their top speed for the duration of the race. However, for the 400m at the elite level, the event is almost uniformly run with a positive-split strategy. Runners run the first 200m faster than the final 200m. [11] [12]
In the 800 meters, the fastest times have almost always been achieved with a positive-split strategy. A study of 26 world-record 800m races from 1912 to 1997 showed that in 92% of the fastest 800m races, the first half of the race has been run faster than the second half. [5] This implies that the optimal strategy for the 800m is a positive-split.
In the 400 meters, the strategy proven to be the most effective is starting off at a 70-75% pace and working up to 100%, or known as the threshold pace strategy. Examples of this race plan are Michael Johnson’s former World Record of 43.18 in 1999 and Cathy Freeman’s Olympic Gold Medal in 2000, [13] both 400 meters runners who benefited from this type of pacing strategy.
In the 5000 meters and 10000 meters, the optimal strategy shifts to even-splitting. An analysis of world-record performances in these events shows a clear pattern: relatively even pacing throughout most of the race, and a slight increase in speed in the last 1000m of both the 5000m and 10000m. [5] While one could interpret this concluding increase in speed as evidence of a sit-and-kick strategy, the increase in speed observed in these performances is not nearly as dramatic and pronounced as what is typically observed in a sit-and-kick type race.
Running is a method of terrestrial locomotion allowing humans and other animals to move rapidly on foot. Running is a type of gait characterized by an aerial phase in which all feet are above the ground. This is in contrast to walking, where one foot is always in contact with the ground, the legs are kept mostly straight and the center of gravity vaults over the stance leg or legs in an inverted pendulum fashion. A feature of a running body from the viewpoint of spring-mass mechanics is that changes in kinetic and potential energy within a stride co-occur, with energy storage accomplished by springy tendons and passive muscle elasticity. The term running can refer to any of a variety of speeds ranging from jogging to sprinting.
In sports, racing is a competition of speed, in which competitors try to complete a given task in the shortest amount of time. Typically this involves traversing some distance, but it can be any other task involving speed to reach a specific goal.
Sprinting is running over a short distance at the top-most speed of the body in a limited period of time. It is used in many sports that incorporate running, typically as a way of quickly reaching a target or goal, or avoiding or catching an opponent. Human physiology dictates that a runner's near-top speed cannot be maintained for more than 30–35 seconds due to the depletion of phosphocreatine stores in muscles, and perhaps secondarily to excessive metabolic acidosis as a result of anaerobic glycolysis.
Middle-distance running events are track races longer than sprints, up to 3000 metres. The standard middle distances are the 800 metres, 1500 metres and mile run, although the 3000 metres may also be classified as a middle-distance event. The 1500 m came about as a result of running 3+3⁄4 laps of a 400 m outdoor track or 7+1⁄2 laps of a 200 m indoor track, which were commonplace in continental Europe in the 20th century.
Long-distance running, or endurance running, is a form of continuous running over distances of at least 3 km (1.9 mi). Physiologically, it is largely aerobic in nature and requires stamina as well as mental strength.
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Jack Tupper Daniels is an exercise physiologist, running coach and a coach of Olympic athletes. On March 21, 2013, he was named the head coach of the Wells College men's and women's cross country programs. He received his doctoral degree in exercise physiology at the University of Wisconsin–Madison. Named "The World's Best Coach" by Runner's World magazine, he led SUNY Cortland runners to eight NCAA Division III National Championships, 31 individual national titles, and more than 130 All-America awards. Daniels outlined his training philosophies in the 1998 book, Daniels' Running Formula. He mentors and coaches some of America's top distance runners in the country.
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A pacemaker or pacesetter, sometimes informally called a rabbit, is a runner who leads a middle- or long-distance running event for the first section to ensure a fast time and avoid excessive tactical racing. Pacemakers are frequently employed by race organisers for world record attempts with specific instructions for lap times. Some athletes have essentially become professional pacemakers. A competitor who chooses the tactic of leading in order to win is called a front-runner rather than a pacemaker.
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A negative split is a racing strategy that involves completing the second half of a race faster than the first half. It is defined by the intentional setting of a slower initial pace, followed by a gradual or sudden increase of speed towards the end of the race. Alternate strategies include even splitting or sit and kick. Conversely, the act of completing the first half of a race faster than the second half is known as a positive split.
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A kick in a running race is the ability of some athletes to sprint at the end of an endurance-oriented race. For those who possess the ability to kick, it is a strategic weapon. For those with the liability not to possess a kick, they must seek different strategies to anticipate and diminish their opponent's kicking power, usually by a long extended surge to break away or exhaust their opponent well ahead of the finish of the race. Similar to a sprinter in cycling, a kicker has a finite distance they know they are able to sprint, making their strategy to be in the ideal position at that distance to be able to utilize that speed. Sprinting too early could lead an athlete to tie up, a form of muscle cramp that debilitates a racer from continuing to kick. Thus team tactics might also intentionally or not, box a kicker, meaning to position other competitors to their outside, to disrupt their positioning and timing. Of course, as the finish is nearing and all athletes are straining, this becomes more difficult to accomplish deliberately.
