Sprint (running)

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Usain Bolt, world record holder in 100 m and 200 m sprints, plans the steps he will take during the race. Usain Bolt 2012 Olympics 1.jpg
Usain Bolt, world record holder in 100 m and 200 m sprints, plans the steps he will take during the race.
This sprinter's initial crouch in the blocks allowed her to preload her muscles and channel the force generated from this into her first strides. 2014 DecaNation - 400 m 20.jpg
This sprinter's initial crouch in the blocks allowed her to preload her muscles and channel the force generated from this into her first strides.

Sprinting is running over a short distance at the top-most speed of the body in a limited period of time. It is used in many sports that incorporate running, typically as a way of quickly reaching a target or goal, or avoiding or catching an opponent.

Contents

In athletics and track and field, sprints (or dashes) are races over short distances. They are among the oldest running competitions, being recorded at the Ancient Olympic Games. Three sprints are currently held at the modern Summer Olympics and outdoor World Championships: the 100 metres, 200 metres, and 400 metres.

At the professional level, sprinters begin the race by assuming a crouching position in the starting blocks before driving forward and gradually moving into an upright position as the race progresses and momentum is gained. The set position differs depending on the start. The use of starting blocks allows the sprinter to perform an enhanced isometric preload; this generates muscular pre-tension which is channeled into the subsequent forward drive, making it more powerful. Body alignment is of key importance in producing the optimal amount of force. Ideally, the athlete should begin in a 4-point stance and drive forwards concurrently pushing off using both legs for maximum force production. [1] This initial forward thrust is asymmetric in nature usually meaning that the rear foot is lifted sooner while the front foot continues to push off from the front plate. [2] Athletes remain in the same lane on the running track throughout all sprinting events, [3] with the sole exception of the 400 metres indoors. Races up to 100 metres are largely focused upon acceleration to an athlete's maximum speed. [1] All sprints beyond this distance increasingly incorporate an element of endurance. [4]

History

The stadion of ancient Nemea, Greece Stadion of Nemea.jpg
The stadion of ancient Nemea, Greece

The Ancient Olympic Games were begun in 776 B.C. The first 13 editions featured only one event—the stadion race, which was a sprinting race from one end of the stadium to the other. [5] The Diaulos (Δίαυλος, "double pipe") was a double-stadion race, c. 400 metres (1,300 feet), introduced in the 14th Olympiad of the ancient Olympic Games (724 BC).

In the middle-ages sprint races were referred to as foot-races. They were a popular pastime and considered to be a worthy pursuit especially for males raised in military professions. [6] Writing in 1801, the sports writer Joseph Strutt stated 'There is no other exercise that has more uniformly met the approbation of authors than running. In the middle-ages, foot-racing was considered as an essential part of a young man's education, especially if he was the son of a man of rank, and brought up in a military profession.' [7]

In America in 1691, Sir Francis Nicholson hosted a Virginia athletic games which involved foot-races among its events. These races were partly based on a practice from Britain where aristocrats would race their footmen against each other for entertainment. As betting became more a part of the races, professional runners began to increasingly emerge. [8]

Writing in 1838, the Hawaiian intellectual, David Malo, described foot-races which were part of traditional Hawaiian culture. The participants were called Kukini, meaning swift-runners, and they trained with task-specific physical training exercises and ate a specialised diet. Malo states 'The runner was first exercised in walking on his toes, without touching the heel of the foot to the ground. Then he was set to running, at first for a short distance at a moderate pace. Finally he was made to run at full speed for great distances. While in training they were denied poi and all soggy, heavy food, but were fed on rare-done flesh of the fowl and roasted vegetables, taro, sweet-potato, bread-fruit, etc.' [9] The sprinters had to race from a starting point to a flag on a pole. Bets were placed on the runners by the spectators. [10] These runners were also employed as messengers for civil and military matters. [11]

The first modern Olympic Games started in the late 19th century (Athens 1896) [12] and featured the 100 metres and 400 metres. Athletes started both races from a crouched start (4-point stance). In both the original Olympics and the modern Olympics, only men were allowed to participate in track and field until the 1928 games in Amsterdam, Netherlands. [13] The 1928 games were also the first games to use a 400-metre track, which became the standard for track and field.

The modern sprinting events have their roots in races of imperial measurements which were later altered to metric: the 100 m evolved from the 100-yard dash, [14] the 200 m distance came from the furlong (or 1⁄8 mile), [15] and the 400 m was the successor to the 440-yard dash or quarter-mile race. [3]

Technological advances have always improved sprint performances (i.e., starting blocks, synthetic track material, and shoe technology). In 1924, athletes used a small shovel to dig holes to start the race. The world record in the 100-metre dash in 1924 was 10.4 seconds, while in 1948, (the first use of starting blocks) was 10.2 seconds, and was 10.1 seconds in 1956. The constant drive for faster athletes with better technology has brought man from 10.4 seconds to 9.58 seconds in less than 100 years.

Track events were measured with the metric system except for the United Kingdom and the United States until 1965 and 1974 respectively. The Amateur Athletic Association (AAU) [16] decided to switch track and field in the U.S. to the metric system to finally make track and field internationally equivalent.

Biological factors for runners

Biological factors that determine a sprinter's potential include:

Competitions

Start of the women's 60 m at the 2010 World Indoor Championships Start women 60 m Doha 2010.jpg
Start of the women's 60 m at the 2010 World Indoor Championships

Common contemporary distances

60 metres

  • Normally run indoors, on a straight section of an indoor athletic track.
  • Some of the fastest humans reach their maximum speed around the 60-metre mark.
  • 60-metres is often used as an outdoor distance by younger athletes when starting sprint racing.

Note: Indoor distances are less standardized, as many facilities run shorter or occasionally longer distances depending on available space. 60 m is the championship distance.

100 metres [18]

  • Takes place on the straight of a standard outdoor 400 m track.
  • Often, the world-record holder in this race is considered "the world's fastest man or woman."
  • Primarily an outdoor race.
A 200 m bend Crawford, Dzingai 200 m Berlin 2009.jpg
A 200 m bend

200 metres [18]

  • Begins on the curve of a standard track (where the runners are staggered in their starting position, to ensure that they all run the same distance), and ends on the home straight.
  • Competed both indoors and outdoors, with only slightly slower times than outdoors.

400 metres [18]

  • Runners are staggered in their starting positions to ensure that everyone runs the same distance.
  • Competed both indoors and outdoors, with only slightly slower times than outdoors.
Allyson Felix, at London 2012 Summer Olympics AllysonFelixRelay4x400London2012.jpg
Allyson Felix, at London 2012 Summer Olympics

4 × 100 metres relay [19]

  • Runners are staggered in their starting positions to ensure that everyone runs the same distance.
  • Runners use exchange zones (and, previously, separate acceleration zones which have now been eliminated) to pass a baton

4 × 400 metres relay [19]

  • Runners are staggered in their starting positions to ensure that everyone runs the same distance.
  • Runners use exchange zones to pass a baton.
  • Typically, the final race at track meets.

Historical and uncommon distances

50 yards (45.72 m)

The event was a common event for most American students because it was one of the standardized test events as part of the President's Award on Physical Fitness. [20]

50 m

The 50 metres is an uncommon event and alternative to the 60 metres. Donovan Bailey holds the men's world record with a time of 5.56 seconds and Irina Privalova holds the women's world record with a time of 5.96 seconds.

60 yards (54.864 m)

  • A rarely run sprinting event that was once more commonplace. The world record time of 5.99 seconds is held by Lee McRae and was set in 1987. The time is often used for American Football speed training.

55 m

The 55 metres is an uncommon event that resulted from the metrication of the 60 yards and is an alternative to the 60 metres.

70 yards (64.008 m)

An extremely rare sprinting event, that was occasionally run in the 1960s. The world record of 6.90 seconds is held by Bob Hayes.

100 yards (91.44 m)

  • The outdoor standard in the English (imperial measured) speaking world. It was part of the Commonwealth Games up until 1966 and was the premier event in American high school sprinting until the NFHS changed to metric in 1980, now only a secondary distance to the 100 metres.
  • The unofficial World Record Holder is Jamaican Asafa Powell with a time of 9.07 seconds.

150 m

150 metres final at the Manchester City Games 2009 Manchester City Games 2009 - Men's final 2 (crop2).jpg
150 metres final at the Manchester City Games 2009
  • The informal distance of 150 metres (164.042 yards) can be used to work on a 100 m runner's stamina, or a 200 m runner's speed, and has been used as an exhibition distance. The distance was used in a race between the 1996 Olympic champions, the 100 m gold medalist Donovan Bailey (Canada) and the 200 m gold medalist Michael Johnson (USA). It was to decide which of the two was really the 'fastest man on earth' (see Bailey–Johnson 150-metre race).
  • The informal distance was used for an exhibition race during the Manchester Great CityGames as part of the 2009 Great Manchester Run (UK). Stars included Triple Olympic Champion Usain Bolt (Jamaica) alongside Ivory Williams (USA), Simeon Williamson (UK), and other international track stars. The female race included 400 m Olympic Champion, Christine Ohuruogu of Great Britain alongside Debbie Ferguson-McKenzie (Bahamas). Bolt ran the distance in a record time of 14.35 seconds. [21] [22]

Stadion

A race scene from Ancient Greece. This drawing is an early 20th Century copy of scene from an Ancient Greek Panathenaic amphora Panathenaic Amphora Sprinters.jpg
A race scene from Ancient Greece. This drawing is an early 20th Century copy of scene from an Ancient Greek Panathenaic amphora

[23]

The stadion, also known as the stade, was the standard short distance sprint in ancient Greece and ran the length of a stadium. However, stadiums could vary in size and there was apparently no definite standard length for them, e.g., the stadium at Delphi measures 177 m and the one at Pergamon 210 m. [24]

300 m

Diaulos

The diaulos was an event contested in the Ancient Greek Olympia that was double the length of a stadion.

The hoplitodromos race was two stades long and run with a shield and helmet. This drawing, from 1910, is based on an original from a Panathenaic amphora from c.336 BC. Image from page 318 of "Greek athletic sports and festivals" (1910).jpg
The hoplitodromos race was two stades long and run with a shield and helmet. This drawing, from 1910, is based on an original from a Panathenaic amphora from c.336 BC.

As well as standard foot races, in Ancient Greece there was also a sprint race called the hoplitodromos ('armed diaulos' [28] ). This required the sprinters to additionally carry a large shield and wear a helmet. Similarly to the diaulos, they ran two stades in length i.e. one stade ending with a 180 degree turn around a post, which led onto the second stade in length back down the track. [29] In the diaulos, each sprinter had an individual post to run around. [30] However, for some hoplitodromos races all of the sprinters ran around a single central post. [31]

4 × 200 metres relay [19]

  • Runners are staggered in their starting positions to ensure that everyone runs the same distance.
  • Runners use acceleration zones and exchange zones to pass a baton

Equipment

Shoes

Typically, a sprinter only needs two types of shoes, training shoes and sprinting spikes. [32]

Sprinting spikes are typically designed to be lightweight, with a minimal cushion on the heels and a plate on the forefoot to keep the runner on the toes of each foot. The spike plate will typically have the maximum number of holes for metal spikes to be inserted to keep a proper grip on the track surface. These metal removable spikes also come in varying sizes. The spikes typically range from 4 mm to 15 mm and come in different styles. Most facilities have specific requirements for what size and style spikes can be used. [33]

Starting blocks

Starting blocks are not a necessity but are highly suggested for use in sprinting events. Starting blocks are a piece of equipment that typically consists of foot pads attached to a central rail. The point of using blocks is to help the athlete push themselves further down the track as quickly as possible.

Typical block start set-up

  • Place heel slightly on the starting line
  • Place the blocks in the center of the track, approximately where your toe is.
  • The dominant foot will be in the front block. With the paddle being set at 45 degrees
  • The front block will be about 1 3⁄4-2 foot lengths from the starting line.
  • The non-dominant foot will be in the back block.  The paddle will be set as high as possible.
  • The back block will be set about 3–3 1⁄2 foot lengths from the starting line.
  • The front block and back block are only about 1 foot length apart.
  • The toes should barely touch the ground.  
  • Hands will be placed about shoulder-width apart, with the thumb and pointer finger slightly behind the line.
  • Arms should be in a straight position (locked or prepared to be locked at the elbows)
  • The arms will remain straight (if not locked at the elbows)
  • The hips will rise slightly above the shoulders (forcing the front half of the body to lean forward at about 45 degrees (slightly less)).
  • A forward lean is optimal because it shifts most of the weight to the hands with a minimal bend to the back.
  • The dominant leg should have about a 90-degree bend at the knee, while the non-dominant leg should be about 120 degrees
  • The arm on the dominant foot side will swing forward in an "exaggerated" fashion, while the arm on the non-dominant side will swing backward in the same fashion
  • The non-dominant foot will be the first step.
  • The non-dominant leg should come out with a long (within comfort's range) stride, bringing the knee to a 90-degree position (separation of the foot and opposite leg's knee about 2–2 1⁄2 feet), approximately a 45-degree shin angle, and dorsiflexion with each stride.
  • Halfway before the first step lands, the "driving" position should have a straight line through the non-dominant ankle, knee, hips, shoulders, and head.

Baton

The baton is a required element for any relay race. The baton is passed to each athlete through different exchange zones, with different techniques. Typically, about 30 centimetres (1 ft) long and 3.8 centimetres (1.5 in) in diameter.

Timing

Stopwatches

Used typically in training sessions to measure relative times and recovery times. Stopwatches are not always the most accurate way to measure times in a race setting,

Fully Automatic Timing / gate systems

Fully Automatic Timing (FAT) and gate systems are used to accurately measure races, with results as accurate as up to 1/1000 of a second. [34]  

Governing bodies

As of 2021, World Athletics (WA) [35] is the governing body for track and field around the world. Every country that wishes to participate in WA competitions must become a member. [36]

Rules

Rule differences between governing bodies

Each governing body sets its own rules for how competition is deemed fair.  World Athletics sets the competition rules internationally. The World Athletics rulebook [37] is broken into 4 separate books.

The start

Jeremy Wariner beginning a race from the starting blocks Start Jeremy Wariner 2007.jpg
Jeremy Wariner beginning a race from the starting blocks

Starting blocks are used for all competition sprints (up to and including 400 m) and relay events (first leg only, up to 4x400 m). [38] The starting blocks consist of two adjustable footplates attached to a rigid frame. Races commence with the firing of the starter's gun. [38] The starting commands are "On your marks" and "Set". [38] Once all athletes are in the set position, the starter's gun is fired, officially starting the race. For the 100 m, all competitors are lined up side by side. For the 200 m, 300 m, and 400 m, which involve curves, runners are staggered for the start.

In the rare event that there are technical issues with a start, a green card is shown to all the athletes. The green card carries no penalty. If an athlete is unhappy with track conditions after the "on your marks" command is given, the athlete must raise a hand before the "set" command and provide the Start referee with a reason. It is then up to the Start referee to decide if the reason is valid. If the Start referee deems the reason invalid, a yellow card (warning) is issued to that particular athlete. If the athlete is already on a warning, the athlete is disqualified.

False starts

According to the World Athletics (WA) rules, "An athlete, after assuming a full and final set position, shall not commence his starting motion until after receiving the report of the gun or approved starting apparatus. If, in the judgement of the Starter or Recallers, he does so any earlier, it shall be deemed a false start." [38]

The 100 m Olympic gold and silver medallist Linford Christie of Great Britain famously had frequent false starts that were marginally below the legal reaction time of 0.1 seconds. Christie and his coach, Ron Roddan, both claimed that the false starts were due to Christie's exceptional reaction times being under legal time. His frequent false starting eventually led to his disqualification from the 1996 Summer Olympics 100 m final in Atlanta, the US, due to a second false start by Christie. Since January 2010, under WA rules, a single false start by an athlete resulted in disqualification.

In 2012, a new development to the false start rule was added. Because certain athletes could be disqualified for twitching in the starting blocks, but some athletes could make a twitch without the starter noticing and disqualifying the athlete, it was decided that twitching in the starting block while being in the 'set' position would only carry a maximum penalty of a yellow card or a warning. To instantly be disqualified for a false start, an athlete's hands must leave the track or their feet must leave the starting blocks, while the athlete is in their final 'set' position. [39]

Lanes

Sprint lanes in Ornskoldsvik, Sweden, as seen from the 100 m starting point Skyttis athletics tracks.jpg
Sprint lanes in Örnsköldsvik, Sweden, as seen from the 100 m starting point

For all Olympic sprint events, runners must remain within their pre-assigned lanes, which measure 1.22 metres (4 feet) wide, from start to finish. [40] The lanes can be numbered 1 through 8, 9, or rarely 10, starting with the inside lane. Any athlete who runs outside the assigned lane to gain an advantage is subject to disqualification. If the athlete is forced to run outside of their lane by another person, and no material advantage is gained, there will be no disqualification. Also, a runner who strays from their lane in the straightaway, or crosses the outer line of their lane on the bend, and gains no advantage by it, will not be disqualified as long as no other runner is obstructed.

The finish

The finish of the 1987 East German athletics championships Bundesarchiv Bild 183-1987-0822-034, Sabine Busch, Cornelia Ulrich.jpg
The finish of the 1987 East German athletics championships

The first athlete whose torso reaches the vertical plane of the closest edge of the finish line is the winner. To ensure that the sprinter's torso triggers the timing impulse at the finish line rather than an arm, foot, or other body parts, a double Photocell is commonly used. Times are only recorded by an electronic timing system when both of these Photocells are simultaneously blocked. Photo finish systems are also used at some track and field events.

World records

Women's World Records
DisciplinePerformanceCompetitorCountryVenueDate
50 metres5.96Irina Privalova [41] RUS [42] Madrid (ESP)9 February 1995
60 metres6.92Irina Privalova [41] RUS [42] Madrid (ESP)9 February 1995
100 metres10.49Florence Griffith-Joyner [43] USA [44] Indianapolis, Indiana (USA)16 July 1988
200 metres (indoors)21.87Merlene Ottey [45] JAM [46] Lievin (FRA)13 February 1993
200 metres (outdoors)21.34Florence Griffith-Joyner [43] USA [44] Olympic Stadium, Jamsil, Seoul (KOR)29 September 1988
400 metres (indoors)49.26Femke Bol [47] NLDOmnisport, Apeldoorn (NLD)19 February 2023
400 metres (outdoors)47.60Marita Koch [48] GDRBruce Stadium, Canberra (AUS)6 October 1985
4x100 metre relay40.82Tianna Bartoletta, [49] Allyson Felix, [50] Bianca Knight, [51] Carmelita Jeter [52] USA [44] Olympic Stadium, London (GBR)10 August 2012
4x200 metre relay (indoors)1:32.41Yuliya Gushchina, [53] Yuliya Pechonkina, [54] Irina Khabarova, [55] Yekaterina Kondratyeva [56] RUS [42] Glasgow (GBR)29 January 2005
4x200 metre relay (outdoors)1:27.46Marion Jones, [57] Nanceen Perry, [58] LaTasha Colander, [59] LaTasha Jenkins [60] USA [44] Philadelphia, PA (USA)29 April 2000
4x400 metre relay (indoors)3:23.37Yuliya Gushchina, [53] Olga Kotlyarova, [61] Olga Zaytseva, [62] Olesya Krasnomovets-Forsheva [63] RUS [42] Glasgow (GBR)28 January 2006
4x400 metre relay (outdoors)3:15.17Tatyana Ledovskaya, [64] Olga Nazarova, [65] Mariya Pinigina, [66] Olga Bryzgina [67] URSOlympic Stadium, Jamsil, Seoul (KOR)1 October 1988
Men's World Records
DisciplinePerformanceCompetitorCountryVenueDate
50 metres5.56Donovan Bailey [68] CAN [69] Reno, Nevada (USA)9 February 1996
60 metres6.34Christian Coleman [70] USA [44] Albuquerque, New Mexico (USA)18 February 2018
100 metres9.58Usain Bolt [71] JAM [46] Olympiastadion, Berlin (GER)16 August 2009
200 metres (indoors)19.92Frank Fredericks [72] NAM [73] Liévin (FRA)18 February 1996
200 metres (outdoors)19.19Usain Bolt [71] JAM [46] Olympiastadion, Berlin (GER)20 August 2009
400 metres (indoors)44.57Kerron Clement [74] USA [44] Fayetteville, Arkansas (USA)12 March 2005
400 metres (outdoors)43.03Wayde Van Niekerk [75] RSA [76] Estádio Olímpico, Rio de Janeiro (BRA)14 August 2016
4x100 metre relay36.84Nesta Carter, [77] Michael Frater, [78] Yohan Blake, [79] Usain Bolt [71] JAM [46] Olympic Stadium, London (GBR)11 August 2012
4x200 metre relay (indoors)1:22.11John Regis, [80] Ade Mafe, [81] Darren Braithwaite, [82] Linford Christie [83] GBR [84] Glasgow (GBR)3 March 1991
4x200 metre relay (outdoors)1:18.63Nickel Ashmeade, [85] Warren Weir, [86] Jermaine Brown, [87] Yohan Blake [79] JAM [46] T. Robinson Stadium, Nassau (BAH)24 May 2014
4x400 metre relay (indoors)3:01.51Amere Lattin, [88] Obi Igbokwe, [89] Jermaine Holt, [90] Kahmari Montgomery [91] USA [44] Clemson, South Carolina (USA)9 February 2019
4x400 metre relay (outdoors)2:54.29Michael Johnson, [92] Harry "Butch" Reynolds, [93] Quincy Watts, [94] Andrew Valmon [95] USA [44] Gottlieb-Daimler Stadion, Stuttgart (GER)22 August 1993
Mixed World Records
DisciplinePerformanceCompetitorCountryVenueDate
4x400 metre relay mixed3:08.80Justin Robinson, Rosey Effiong, Matthew Bowling, Alexis HolmesUSA [44] National Athletics Centre, Budapest (HUN)19 August 2023

Worldwide events involving sprint races

Sprint training

While genetics play a large role in one's ability to sprint, [96] [97] [98] athletes must be dedicated to their training to ensure that they can optimize their performances. Sprint training includes various running workouts, targeting acceleration, speed development, speed endurance, special endurance, and tempo endurance. Additionally, athletes perform intense strength training workouts, as well as plyometric or jumping workouts. Collectively, these training methods produce qualities that allow athletes to be stronger, and more powerful, in hopes of ultimately running faster. [99]

Strength and balance

In is important for sprinters that their muscular system is in the optimum ratio in order to maximise their chances of success. As such, in their training they seek to avoid excessive muscle imbalances developing especially in regard to a lateral imbalance between the left and right sides of their body. For example, the strength of their left and right legs should be approximately even and neither leg should be excessively stronger than the other. [100] If there is an excessive lateral imbalance, with one side of the body much stronger than the other, then it can result in negative physical stresses, overuse injuries and poor sprinting form. Methods to avoid this are therefore incorporated into sprint training. [101]

During the 200m and 400m sprints athletes run counter-clockwise around curved sections of the track. This is known as running the bend or curvilinear running. When sprinters run around these curved sections of track, their gait becomes asynchronous meaning that their left stride is shorter and their right stride longer. In order to avoid their leg muscles developing in a lop sided fashion they also run clockwise around the track during training. This means that, overall, they are using their left and right legs in a more even manner and therefore their strength develops in more of a balanced way. [102]

Similarly, launching from starting blocks is an asynchronous action. The foot on the front pedal drives for longer and applies significantly more force overall in this phase. In order to avoid a strength imbalance developing between the leg used on the front pedal and the one used on the rear pedal, the athlete alternates the foot they use for each pedal i.e. uses the left foot in the front pedal some of the time and the right foot in the front pedal at other times. Such a training practice results in a more even muscular development, improves overall efficiency and reduces the risk of injury. In races, sprinters use their strongest set up and put their preferred foot in the front pedal. [103]

Alternating asynchronous actions is a standard method used by athletes to ensure they achieve the optimum muscular development for their discipline and ensure higher levels of success. [104]

See also

Notes and references

  1. 1 2 100 m – For the Expert. IAAF. Retrieved on 26 March 2010.
  2. ↑ Freeman, Will (2015). "Skills of the Sprint Event". Track & Field Coaching Essentials. Champaign: Human Kinetics. pp. 90–92. ISBN   978-1-4504-8932-4.
  3. 1 2 400 m Introduction. IAAF. Retrieved on 26 March 2010.
  4. ↑ 200 m For the Expert. IAAF. Retrieved on 26 March 2010.
  5. ↑ Instone, Stephen (15 November 2009). The Olympics: Ancient versus Modern. BBC. Retrieved on 23 March 2010.
  6. ↑ Tomlinson, Alan (2010). "Running". Dictionary of Sports Studies. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN   9780191726859.
  7. ↑ Strutt, Joseph (1801). Sports and Pastimes of the People of England.
  8. ↑ Magness, Steve. "A Brief History of Track and Field in the US". Science of Running. Retrieved 28 August 2025.
  9. ↑ Malo, David; Dr. N.B. Emerson (1903). Hawaiian Antiquities (PDF). Honolulu: The Hawaiian Gazette. pp. 288–89. Retrieved 28 August 2025.
  10. ↑ Malo, David; Dr. N.B. Emerson (1903). Hawaiian Antiquities (PDF). Honolulu: The Hawaiian Gazette. p. 288. Retrieved 28 August 2025.
  11. ↑ Henry, Dawn. "History of the Kukini". University of Hawaii. Retrieved 28 August 2025.
  12. ↑ "Athens 1896 Olympic Games". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2021-07-27.
  13. ↑ "Amsterdam 1928". Olympics.com. 25 April 2018. Archived from the original on Aug 5, 2021. Retrieved 9 August 2021.
  14. ↑ 100 m – Introduction. IAAF. Retrieved on 26 March 2010.
  15. ↑ 200 m Introduction. IAAF. Retrieved on 26 March 2010.
  16. ↑ Daley, Arthur J. (1932-11-23). "A.A.U. CONVENTION ADOPTS METRIC PLAN; Yardage Basis of Measurement in Track and Field Dropped in Surprise Move. GOES INTO EFFECT JAN. 1 System Used in Olympics and in Majority of Countries Is Approved Unanimously. BRUNDAGE IS RE-ELECTED Chicagoan Is Named President for Fifth Time -- Various Title Events Awarded". The New York Times. ISSN   0362-4331 . Retrieved 2025-05-22.
  17. ↑ Quinn, Elizabeth (2007-10-30). Fast and Slow Twitch Muscle Fibers About.com. Retrieved on 2009-02-01.
  18. 1 2 3 "3 Types of Track and Field Running Events".
  19. 1 2 3 "All you need to know about relay races: Rules, history, world records".
  20. ↑ "President's Council on Sports, Fitness & Nutrition (PCSFN)". HHS.gov. 10 January 2017. Archived from the original on April 26, 2017.
  21. ↑ Bolt runs 14.35 sec for 150m; covers 50m-150m in 8.70 sec!. IAAF (2009-05-17). Retrieved on 2009-05-17.
  22. ↑ New World Best over 150m for Usain Bolt from Universal Sports on YouTube
  23. ↑ Gardiner, E. Norman (1910). Greek Athletic Sports and Festivals. London: MacMillan. p. 281 Fig. 52.
  24. ↑ Spivey, Nigel, The Ancient Olympics, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004, p. 111–112
  25. ↑ "Tebogo breaks world 300m best with 30.69 in Pretoria". World Athletics . 17 February 2024. Retrieved 6 June 2024.
  26. ↑ Bob Ramsak (20 June 2019). "Miller-Uibo breaks 300m world best, Lasitskene tops 2.06m and Kirt joins 90-metre club in Ostrava". World Athletics . Retrieved 6 June 2024.
  27. ↑ "panathenaic amphora; prize/trophy". The British Museum. Retrieved 29 February 2024.
  28. ↑ Scanlon, Thomas F. (2014). Sport in the Greek and Roman Worlds: Volume 1 Early Greece, the Olympics, and Contests. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 213.
  29. ↑ Scanlon, Thomas F. (2014). Sport in the Greek and Roman Worlds: Volume 1 Early Greece, the Olympics, and Contests. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 213.
  30. ↑ Gardiner, E. Norman (1910). Greek Athletic Sports and Festivals. London: MacMillan. p. 280.
  31. ↑ Gardiner, E. Norman (1910). Greek Athletic Sports and Festivals. London: MacMillan. p. 289.
  32. ↑ "A Beginner's Guide to Running Spikes". Runners Need. Retrieved 2021-07-27.
  33. ↑ "The Ultimate Track Spike Buyers Guide". The Wired Runner. 2018-01-29. Retrieved 2021-07-27.
  34. ↑ "What is Fully Automatic Timing (FAT) for Sports? | About". FinishLynx. 20 November 2012. Retrieved 2021-07-27.
  35. ↑ "About World Athletics". www.worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  36. ↑ "Member Federations". www.worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  37. ↑ "Book of Rules | Official Documents". www.worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  38. 1 2 3 4 Competition Rules 2012-13, IAAF
  39. ↑ Cherry, Gene (4 July 2012). "Twitch or flinch no longer a false start". Reuters . Retrieved 22 June 2022.
  40. ↑ 2009 USATF Competition Rules, Rule 160(1)
  41. 1 2 "Irina Privalova | Profile | World Athletics". www.worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  42. 1 2 3 4 "Member Federations". www.worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  43. 1 2 "Florence Griffith-Joyner | Profile | World Athletics". www.worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  44. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 "Member Federations". www.worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  45. ↑ "Merlene Ottey | Profile | World Athletics". www.worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  46. 1 2 3 4 5 "Member Federations". www.worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  47. ↑ "Femke Bol | Profile | World Athletics". www.worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2023-02-28.
  48. ↑ "Marita Koch | Profile | World Athletics". www.worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  49. ↑ "Tianna Bartoletta | Profile | World Athletics". worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  50. ↑ "Allyson Felix | Profile | World Athletics". worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  51. ↑ "Bianca Knight | Profile | World Athletics". worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  52. ↑ "Carmelita Jeter | Profile | World Athletics". worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  53. 1 2 "Yuliya Gushchina | Profile | World Athletics". worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  54. ↑ "Yuliya Pechonkina | Profile | World Athletics". worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  55. ↑ "Irina Khabarova | Profile | World Athletics". www.worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  56. ↑ "Yekaterina Kondratyeva". Olympics.com. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  57. ↑ "Marion Jones | Profile | World Athletics". worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  58. ↑ "Nanceen Perry | Profile | World Athletics". worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  59. ↑ "LaTasha Colander | Profile | World Athletics". worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  60. ↑ "LaTasha Jenkins | Profile | World Athletics". www.worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  61. ↑ "Olga Kotlyarova | Profile | World Athletics". worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  62. ↑ "Olga Zaytseva | Profile | World Athletics". worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  63. ↑ "Olesya Krasnomovets | Profile | World Athletics". worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  64. ↑ "Tatiana Ledovskaya". Olympics.com. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  65. ↑ "Olga M. Nazarova | Profile | World Athletics". www.worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  66. ↑ "Mariya Kulchunova-Pinigina | Profile | World Athletics". worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  67. ↑ "Olga Vladykina-Bryzgina | Profile | World Athletics". worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  68. ↑ "Donovan Bailey | Profile | World Athletics". worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  69. ↑ "Member Federations". www.worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  70. ↑ "Christian Coleman | Profile | World Athletics". worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  71. 1 2 3 "Usain Bolt | Profile | World Athletics". worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  72. ↑ "Frank Fredericks | Profile | World Athletics". worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  73. ↑ "Member Federations". www.worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  74. ↑ "Kerron Clement | Profile | World Athletics". worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  75. ↑ "Wayde Van niekerk | Profile | World Athletics". worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  76. ↑ "Member Federations". www.worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  77. ↑ "Nesta Carter | Profile | World Athletics". worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  78. ↑ "Michael FRATER | Profile | World Athletics". worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  79. 1 2 "Yohan BLAKE | Profile | World Athletics". worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  80. ↑ "John Regis | Profile | World Athletics". worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  81. ↑ "Ade Mafe | Profile | World Athletics". worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  82. ↑ "Darren Braithwaite | Profile | World Athletics". www.worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  83. ↑ "Linford Christie | Profile | World Athletics". worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  84. ↑ "Member Federations". www.worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  85. ↑ "Nickel Ashmeade | Profile | World Athletics". worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  86. ↑ "Warren Weir | Profile | World Athletics". worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  87. ↑ "Germaine BROWN | Profile | World Athletics". worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  88. ↑ "Amere Lattin | Profile | World Athletics". worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  89. ↑ "Obi IGBOKWE | Profile | World Athletics". www.worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  90. ↑ "Jermaine Holt - Track and Field". University of Houston Athletics. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  91. ↑ "Kahmari MONTGOMERY | Profile | World Athletics". worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  92. ↑ "Michael Johnson | Profile | World Athletics". worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  93. ↑ "Harry Reynolds | Profile | World Athletics". worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  94. ↑ "Quincy Watts | Profile | World Athletics". www.worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  95. ↑ "Andrew Valmon - Head Track Coach - Staff Directory". University of Maryland Athletics. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  96. ↑ Lombardo, Michael P.; Deaner, Robert O. (2014-06-26). "You can't teach speed: sprinters falsify the deliberate practice model of expertise". PeerJ. 2: e445. doi: 10.7717/peerj.445 . ISSN   2167-8359. PMC   4081292 . PMID   25024914.
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  99. ↑ Husbands, Chris. (30 September 2013). Sprinting : training, techniques and improving performance. Ramsbury. ISBN   978-1-84797-645-1. OCLC   859777344.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  100. ↑ Ward, Keith (2024). Routledge Handbook of Sports and Exercise. Oxon: Routledge. p. 626. ISBN   978-1-003-15217-0.
  101. ↑ Micheli M.D., Lyle J. (2011). "Preventing Sports Injuries: Muscle Imbalances". Encyclopedia of Sports Medicine. Sage Publications. pp. 1142–43. ISBN   978-1-412-96115-8.
  102. ↑ Hanley, Brian; Padulo, Johnny; Slawinski, Jean (2022). The Biomechanics of Competitive Gait: Sprinting, Hurdling, Distance Running, and Race Walking. Lausanne: Frontiers. p. 39. ISBN   978-2-889-71980-8.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  103. ↑ Freeman, Will. "Skills of the Sprint Event". Track and Field Coaching Essentials. Champaign: Human Kinetics. p. 90-92. ISBN   978-1-4504-8932-4.
  104. ↑ Swinnen, Bram (2016). Strength Training for Soccer. London: Routledge. p. 269. ISBN   978-1-315-66527-6.
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