Cross-country skiing (sport)

Last updated

Cross-country ski competition
Diominskii Lyzhnyi Marafon 2015.jpg
Demino Ski Marathon, 2015
Highest governing body FIS
NicknamesCross-country, XC skiing
Characteristics
Mixed-sex Separate events for men and women
TypeOutdoor winter sport
Equipment Skis, poles, boots, bindings
Presence
Olympic 1924 (men), 1952 (women)
Paralympic 1976

Competitive cross-country skiing encompasses a variety of race formats and course lengths. Rules of cross-country skiing are sanctioned by the International Ski Federation and by various national organizations. International competitions include the FIS Nordic World Ski Championships, the FIS Cross-Country World Cup, and at the Winter Olympic Games. Such races occur over homologated, groomed courses designed to support classic (in-track) and freestyle events, where the skiers may employ skate skiing. It also encompasses cross-country ski marathon events, sanctioned by the Worldloppet Ski Federation, and cross-country ski orienteering events, sanctioned by the International Orienteering Federation. Related forms of competition are biathlon, where competitors race on cross-country skis and stop to shoot at targets with rifles, and paralympic cross-country skiing that allows athletes with disabilities to compete at cross-country skiing with adaptive equipment.

Contents

Norwegian army units were skiing for sport (and prizes) in the 18th century. Starting in the latter part of the 20th century, technique evolved from the striding in-track classic technique to include skate-skiing, which occurs on courses that have been groomed with wide lanes for those using the technique. At the same time, equipment evolved from skis and poles that were made of wood and other natural materials to comprising such man-made materials as fiberglass, carbon fiber, and polyethylene plastics. [1]

Athletes train to achieve endurance, strength, speed, skill and flexibility at different levels of intensity. Off-season training often occurs on dry land, sometimes on roller skis. The organization of cross-country ski competitions aims to make those events accessible both to spectators and television audiences. As with other sports that require endurance, strength and speed, some athletes have chosen to use banned performance-enhancing drugs.

History

Local championship, Ballangen Municipality, Norway, 1925 AIN.11161.1695.jpg
Local championship, Ballangen Municipality, Norway, 1925
Swedish competitor, Martin Matsbo, in April 1935 Martin Matsbo.jpg
Swedish competitor, Martin Matsbo, in April 1935

In 1767 Danish-Norwegian general, Schack Carl Rantzau, codified four classes of military skiing contests and established prizes for each: [2] [3]

An early record of a public ski competition was for an 1843 event in Tromsø. The announcement called the event a "wagering race on skis". [4] A distinct alpine technique emerged around 1900 from how skiing was practiced up until then when Mathias Zdarsky advocated the "Lilienfelder Ski Method" as an alternative to the Norwegian technique. [3] In Norwegian, langrenn refers to "competitive skiing where the goal is to complete a specific distance in pre-set tracks in the shortest possible time". Alpine skiing competitions (known as hill races) existed in Norway during the 18th and 19th centuries, but were discontinued when the main ski festival in Oslo focused on long races (competitive cross-country skiing) and ski jumping (now known as the Nordic disciplines). The alpine disciplines reemerged in Central Europe around 1920. Ski touring competitions (Norwegian : turrenn) are long-distance cross-country competitions open to the public, competition is usually within age categories. [5]

In the 1800s racers used a single, wooden pole, which was longer and stronger than modern poles, and could be used for braking downhill, as well. In Norway, racing with two poles ("Finland style") met with resistance, starting in the 1880s, when some race rules forbade them; objections included issues of aesthetics—how they made skiers "[waddle] like geese". As the use of pairs of pole became the norm, materials favored lightness and strength, starting with bamboo, which gave way to fiberglass, used at the 1968 Winter Olympics, aluminum, used at the 1972 Winter Olympics, and ultimately carbon fiber, introduced in 1975. [6]

Skate skiing

Skate skiing was introduced to competition in the 20th Century. At the first German ski championship, held at the Feldberg in the Black Forest in 1900, the Norwegian Bjarne Nilssen won the 23 km cross-country race and was observed using a skating motion while skiing—a technique unknown to the spectators. [7] Johan Grøttumsbråten used the skating technique at the 1931 World Championship in Oberhof, one of the earliest recorded use of skating in competitive cross-country skiing. [4] This technique was later used in ski orienteering in the 1960s on roads and other firm surfaces. Finnish skier Pauli Siitonen developed a variant of the style for marathon or other endurance events in the 1970s by leaving one ski in the track while skating outwards to the side with the other ski (one-sided skating); [8] this became known as the "marathon skate". [9] American skier Bill Koch further developed the marathon skate technique in the late 1970s. [5] [10] Skate skiing became widespread during the 1980s after Koch's success with it in the 1982 Cross-country Skiing Championships drew more attention to the technique. [8] Norwegian skier, Ove Aunli, started using the technique in 1984, when he found it to be much faster than classic style. [11] Skating is most effective on wide, smooth, groomed trails, using fiberglass skis that glide well; it also benefits a stronger athlete—which, according to Olav Bø, are the reasons that the technique made a breakthrough in the early 1980s. [4] Athletes widely adopted skating to both sides by the time of the 1985 world championship and it was formally adopted by the FIS in 1986 [5] —despite initial opposition from Norway, the Soviet Union and Finland—while preserving events using only classic technique. [11]

Events

Winter Olympic Games

Sverre Stenersen headed for victory in Nordic combined at the 1956 Winter Olympic Games in Cortina d'Ampezzo, Italy. Sverre Stenersen.jpg
Sverre Stenersen headed for victory in Nordic combined at the 1956 Winter Olympic Games in Cortina d'Ampezzo, Italy.

The Winter Olympic Games are a major international sporting event that occurs once every four years. The first Winter Olympics, the 1924 Winter Olympics, was held in Chamonix, France and included Nordic skiing (which includes cross-country skiing) among the five principal disciplines. Cross-country events have evolved in the Winter Olympics since 1924, as seen in the following timeline: [12]

At the 2022 Olympics in Beijing, cross-country skiing will feature events in both classic cross-country and skate skiing (also called free technique). The two styles alternate at the major events (Olympic Games, World Championships). For example, at the 2018 Winter Olympics in Pyeongchang, the 15 km men's individual race was a skate skiing event. Therefore, at the 2022 Olympics, this event will be skied in classic style. [13]

FIS events

Classical event during the FIS Nordic World Ski Championships of 2009 in Liberec, Czech Republic. Campeonato mundial.jpg
Classical event during the FIS Nordic World Ski Championships of 2009 in Liberec, Czech Republic.

The FIS Nordic World Ski Championships have been held in various numbers and types of events since 1925 for men and since 1954 for women. From 1924 to 1939, the World Championships were held annually, including years with Winter Olympic Games. After World War II, the World Championships were held every four years from 1950 to 1982. Since 1985, the World Championships have been held in odd-numbered years. [14]

FIS events include: [14]

FIS Nordic World Ski Championships medal events [14]
Event Dates for Men Dates for Women
Individual sprint2001–Present2001–Present
Team sprint2005–Present2005–Present
5 kmN/A1962–1999
10 km1991–1999, 2025–Present1954–Present
15 km1954–20231989–2003
17–18 km1925–1950N/A
20 kmN/A1978–1987
30 km1926–20031989–2023
50 km1925–Present2025–Present
4 × 10 km relay1933–2023N/A
3 × 5 km relayN/A1954–1970
4 × 5 km relayN/A1974–2023
4 × 7.5 km relay2025–Present2025–Present
Combined/double pursuit/Skiathlon1993–Present1993–Present

Ski marathon

Marathon mass start at the 2006 Tartu Maraton. Tartu Maraton 2006-2.jpg
Marathon mass start at the 2006 Tartu Maraton.

A ski marathon is a long-distance, usually point-to-point race, of more than 40 kilometers; some are held concurrent with shorter races and participation is usually open to the public. In Norwegian, such a race is called turrenn ("ski touring race"). [5] Major events have more than 10,000 participants where mass starts often have a modified starting order by groupings of participants—who have been judged to be of similar ability, beginning with the elite skiers group and ending with a group of the least experienced skiers. [15] Skiers can use either classic or skate-skiing techniques, depending on the rules of the race. Awards are usually based on overall placement, placement by sex of athlete, and by age category. [15] There are two major series in this category, the Ski Classics and the Worldloppet.

Ski Classics series

Ski Classics is a commercially sponsored international long-distance cross-country skiing cup competition, held in Europe. It originated in January 2011. [16] As of the winter of 2015–6, the tour consisted of eight long-distance events, preceded by a prologue of 15 km and La Sgambeda of 24 km: [17]

Classic Series events
EventClassicFreestyleLocation
Flag of the Czech Republic.svg Jizerská Padesátka 50 / 25 km30 km Bedřichov, Czech Republic
Flag of Italy.svg Marcialonga 70 / 45 km Moena – Cavalese, Italy
Flag of Germany.svg König Ludwig Lauf 50 / 23 km50 / 23 km Oberammergau, Germany
Flag of Sweden.svg Vasaloppet 90 / 45 / 30 km Sälen – Mora, Sweden
Flag of Switzerland (Pantone).svg Engadin Skimarathon 42 / 21 / 17 km Maloja – S-chanf, Switzerland
Flag of Switzerland (Pantone).svg La Diagonala65 km65 km Engadin – St. Moritz, Switzerland
Flag of Norway.svg Birkebeinerrennet 54 km Rena – Lillehammer, Norway
Flag of Sweden.svg Årefjällsloppet 65 km Vålådalen – Åre, Sweden

Worldloppet series

The Worldloppet Ski Federation recognizes twenty ski marathons including those in the Ski Classics series (except La Diagonala and Årefjällslopet). They recognize those athletes who complete Worldloppet races in 10 countries, at least one of which has to be on another continent, to qualify as a "Worldloppet Master". The organization, sanctioned by FIS, seeks to attract elite racers to its events with the FIS Worldloppet Cup and aims thereby to "increase media and spectator interest in long distance racing". [18] Notable races, other than the Ski Classics series include: [19]

Worldloppet Series events
EventClassicFreestyleLocation
Flag of Australia (converted).svg Kangaroo Hoppet 42 / 21 km Falls Creek, Victoria, Australia
Flag of Austria.svg Dolomitenlauf 42 / 21 km60 km Obertilliach / Lienz, Austria
Flag of France.svg Transjurassienne 50 / 25 km76 / 54 km Les Rousses / Lamoura – Mouthe, France
Flag of Japan.svg Sapporo International Ski Marathon 50 / 25 km Sapporo, Japan
Flag of Estonia.svg Tartu Maraton 63 / 31 km63 / 31 km Otepää – Elva, Estonia
Flag of Canada (Pantone).svg Gatineau Loppet 53 / 29 km53 / 29 km Gatineau, Quebec, Canada
Flag of the United States.svg American Birkebeiner 54 / 23 km50 / 23 km Cable – Hayward, Wisconsin, United States
Flag of Finland.svg Finlandia Hiihto 62 / 32 km50 km Lahti, Finland
Flag of Russia.svg Demino Ski Marathon 25 km50 km Rybinsk, Russia
Flag of Poland.svg Bieg Piastów 50 /26 km30 km Szklarska Poręba, Poland
Flag of Iceland.svg Fossavatn Ski Marathon 50 km Ísafjörður, Iceland
Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg Vasaloppet China 50 km Changchun, China
Flag of New Zealand.svg Merino Muster 42 / 21 km Wānaka, New Zealand
Flag of Argentina.svg Ushuaia Loppet 42 km Ushuaia, Argentina

Ski orienteering

Olympic women's biathlon gold medalists Olga Zaitseva and Andrea Henkel at the World Cup pursuit race in Oberhof, 2013. Biathlon Oberhof 2013-039.jpg
Olympic women's biathlon gold medalists Olga Zaitseva and Andrea Henkel at the World Cup pursuit race in Oberhof, 2013.

Ski orienteering is an orienteering discipline recognized by the International Orienteering Federation. [20] The World Ski Orienteering Championships is organized every odd year and includes sprint, middle and long distance competitions, and a Relay for both men and women. The World Cup is organized every even year. [20] Junior World Ski Orienteering Championships and World Masters Ski Orienteering Championships are organized annually. [20]

Biathlon

Biathlon combines cross-country skiing and rifle shooting. Depending on the shooting performance, extra distance or time is added to the contestant's total running distance/time. For each shooting round, the biathlete must hit five targets; the skier receives a penalty for each missed target, which varies according to the competition rules; in any given competition one of the following penalties would apply: [21]

Paralympic

Olena Iurkovska of Ukraine competing on cross-country sit-skis at the 2010 Winter Paralympics. Paralympic XC ski sitting.JPG
Olena Iurkovska of Ukraine competing on cross-country sit-skis at the 2010 Winter Paralympics.

Paralympic cross-country skiing is an adaptation of cross-country skiing for athletes with disabilities. Paralympic cross-country skiing is one of two Nordic skiing disciplines in the Winter Paralympic Games; the other is biathlon. Competition is governed by the International Paralympic Committee (IPC). Paralympic cross-country skiing includes standing events, sitting events (for wheelchair users), and events for visually impaired athletes under the rules of the International Paralympic Committee. These are divided into several categories for people who are missing limbs, have amputations, are blind, or have any other physical disability, to continue their sport. The classifications are for: [22]

Technique and equipment

Jorgen Brink skis with classic, diagonal-stride technique uphill in track at Holmenkollen in 2007. BRINK Joergen.jpg
Jörgen Brink skis with classic, diagonal-stride technique uphill in track at Holmenkollen in 2007.

Cross-country ski competitors employ one of two techniques, according to the event: classic and skating (in freestyle races, where all techniques are allowed). [5] Skiathlon combines the two techniques in one race. [23]

Skis are lighter, narrower and designed to be faster than those used in recreational cross-country skiing and made of composite materials. [1] For classic events, typical ski lengths are between 195 and 210 centimetres, while ski lengths for skating are 170 to 200 cm. [12] Skis for skating are also more rigid than skis for classical. [5] Skis are waxed for speed and, in the case of classic skis, traction when striding forward. Racing ski boots are also lighter than recreational ones and are attached at the toe only to bindings that are specialized for classic or skate skiing.

Racing ski poles are usually made from carbon fiber and feature smaller, lighter baskets than recreational poles. Poles designed for skating are longer than those designed for classic skiing. [24]

Classic

In classic cross-country skiing the skis remain parallel, as the skier strides straight ahead. The undersides of the skis have a grip section in the middle treated with a special ski wax that provides friction when the foot is still, yet glides when the foot is in motion, while the rest of the ski bottom has a glide wax. Classic events occur on courses with tracks set by a grooming machine at precise intervals and with carefully planned curvature. Both poles may be used simultaneously ("double-poling") or with alternating foot and arm extended (as with running or walking) with the pole pushing on the side opposite of the extended, sliding ski. In classic skiing the alternating technique is used for the "diagonal stride"—the predominant classic sub-technique. [25] In diagonal-stride legs move like in ordinary walking, but with longer and more powerful steps. Diagonal is useful on level ground and on gentle uphill slopes. Uphill steps are shorter and more frequent. With double-poling both poles are used simultaneously for thrust, which may be augmented with striding. Double-poling is useful on level ground and on gentle downhill slopes. On steep uphills fishbone technique can be used. [5]

Skating

Michal Malak skate skis at a qualifier for the Tour de Ski, 2007. Michal Malak at Tour de Ski retouched.jpg
Michal Malák skate skis at a qualifier for the Tour de Ski, 2007.

While skate skiing, the skier provides propulsion on a firm snow surface by pushing alternating skis away from one another at an angle, in a manner similar to ice skating. Skis are waxed with a glide wax over their entire length, making them faster than classic skis. Freestyle events take place on smooth, wide, specially groomed courses. With the skating technique double-poling is usually employed with alternating skating strides or with every skate stride. The following table puts these poling sequences into order according to the speed achieved as a progression of "gears". In the lowest gear (rarely used in racing), one is poling on the side of the sliding ski, similar to diagonal stride. In the highest gear, the athlete skates without poles. [25] There are equivalent terms in other languages; for example in Norwegian, skating is likened to paddling or dancing, depending on the tempo. [5]

Skate-skiing terminology
"Gear"Term used in the US [26] Term used in Canada [27]
1stDiagonal V: single pole on stationary sideDiagonal skate
2ndV1: Double pole on same sideOffset skate
3rdV2: Double pole on alternate sides1-skate
4thV2 alternate (open field skate)2-skate
5thSkate without polesFree-skate

The primary turns used for racing, are the parallel turn, which is used while descending and can provide braking, and the step turn, which is used for maintaining speed during descents or out of track on flats. [28] The wedge turn (or "snowplow turn"), [28] is sometimes used for braking and turning.

Skier development and training

Dry-land training and racing with roller skis Rollski DM Lanzenhain.jpg
Dry-land training and racing with roller skis

Countries with cross-country ski teams usually have a strategy for developing promising athletes and programs to encourage participation in the sport, starting at a young age. One example is Cross-Country Ski Canada's "Long-Term Athlete Development" program. [27] The program encompasses youth development, training, introduction to competition and improvement of promising athletes with an emphasis on "stamina (endurance), strength, speed, skill and suppleness (flexibility)". It covers age groups from toddlers to mature adults, who are able to enjoy and participate in the sport. [27] Similarly, the USSA has an outline of "Cross Country Athlete Competencies" that has four phases beginning at 12 years old and under and addressing the 21 and older phase at the top. The program encompasses six "domains:" [26]

Ski training for the athlete depends on whether the desired specialty emphasizes endurance (marathon) or intensity (mid-distance events). The "intensity" theory of ski training uses stress to break down muscles and recovery to build them up stronger than before. In this theory, there are five levels of intensity for training: [29] [30]

  1. Aerobic: Low-intensity, aerobic training (at 60–70% of an athlete's maximum intensity) should consume most of the training hours for endurance athletes. [29]
  2. Strength: Strength training improves flexibility and joint motion to minimize injury and to improve overall strength, not addressed by sport-specific training. [29]
  3. Lactate Threshold: This level builds an efficient base speed by training the body to convert blood lactate into energy, rather than creating a sensation of tired muscles. [30]
  4. VO2 max: This level uses interval training to build the athlete's VO2 max—volume of oxygen that the lungs pass into the musculature via the cardiovascular system. [30]
  5. Speed: This level of training addresses the athlete's ability to sprint and is neuromuscular, essentially training the muscles to move quickly. [30]

Athletes train for each level on a seasonal schedule designed for the targeted events: marathon or mid-distance. [30] Additional aspects of training address aerobic (low-intensity) exercise—especially for endurance—and strength to improve joint flexibility and to minimize the risk of injury. [30] Cross-country ski training occurs throughout the year, including on dry land where athletes engage in roller skiing and ski striding to maintain ski-specific muscle fitness. [31]

Race management

Event celebration with a podium ceremony is part of race management. Womens team sprint medal ceremony Oslo 2011.jpg
Event celebration with a podium ceremony is part of race management.

In its "Organizing committee handbook", the FIS covers aspects of race management, including the layout of the competition venue, organization of the events (including scheduling, officiating, and awards), and addressing ancillary factors, such as the role of the media. [32] National handbooks, such as the "USSA Cross-Country Technical Handbook" [33] and the "Cross Country Canada officials manual", [34] provide further guidance, sometimes specific to their venues.

An important aspect of race preparation is grooming the course to provide a surface for skate-skiing and setting tracks for classic events. This takes into account snow physics, methods for packing snow and surface shaping, and the equipment used for these functions. Also key is the layout of grooming and track setting in the stadium with various formats for starts, finishes and intermediate functions for relays and pursuits. [34]

Design of racing venues

A cross-country skiing stadium was part of the racing venue at the Lahti Ski Games 2010. Lahden stadion 2010-03-06.JPG
A cross-country skiing stadium was part of the racing venue at the Lahti Ski Games 2010.

In its "Cross-country homologation manual", the FIS recognizes that fans of the sport wish to follow it on television. With this in mind, the manual addresses how to design the race course and the stadium in a manner that not only enhances the experience of spectators, but of viewers, as well—not just to show the athletes in action, but to show the ways in which fans enjoy the action. The manual includes considerations of: [35]

A course is expected to test the skier's technical and physical abilities, to be laid out in a manner that takes advantage of the natural terrain, and to provide smooth transitions among uphills, downhills and "undulating" terrain—distributed approximately evenly among the three. The manual advocates that courses present a variety of uphills, varying in lengths and gradients between 6% and 12%, which are arrayed efficiently within the venue. It cites two types of stadium, the horseshoe (preferred for television) and the "ski in, ski out" layout. It emphasizes the importance of accommodating television coverage at the start, finish, and exchange zones for equipment or relays. In addition, television coverage requires a variety of facilities to support the activities of the press. [35]

Climate change is causing venues, accustomed to natural snow, to rely increasingly on man-made snow to provide the grooming surface on the race course. Such snow tends to be denser and icier than natural snow, which increases the speed of skiers, especially on downhills. With the increase of speed and a harder surface, comes the increased risk of injuries from falls. The FIS claims to be compiling data on the comparative frequency and severity of falls, but wasn't sharing the information, as of January 2022. [36]

Doping

As with other sports, some competitors in cross-country skiing have chosen to enhance their performance through doping. [37] Anti-doping tests at the 2001 World Nordic skiing championships in Lahti, Finland revealed that Jari Isometsä, Janne Immonen and two other skiers from Finland's gold-medal relay team, Mika Myllylä and Harri Kirvesniemi, and two female skiers tested positive for hydroxyethyl starch (HES), a blood plasma expander usually used to cover up the use of erythropoietin (EPO). EPO boosts the oxygen-carrying capability of hemoglobin. In addition, the team head coach left needles and drip bags at a public location near the Helsinki airport. [38]

At the Sochi Winter Olympic Games, Austrian cross-country skier Johannes Dürr was ejected from competition after testing positive for the blood booster EPO. [39] In 2007, The International Olympic Committee banned biathletes, Wolfgang Perner and Wolfgang Rottmann, and the cross-country skiers, Martin Tauber, Jürgen Pinter, Johannes Eder, Roland Diethart and Christian Hoffmann, from all future Olympic competition. [40] An Italian court found Tauber and Pinter not guilty in 2012. [41]

Skiers, who have tested positive for EPO or other performance-enhancing drugs, include (date of sanction):

NameCountryYear
Dominik Baldauf Austria2019
Roland DiethartAustria2007
Johannes Dürr Austria2009, 2014
Johannes Eder Austria2007
Max Hauke Austria2019
Christian Hoffmann Austria2011
Harald Wurm Austria2015
Karel Tammjärv Estonia2020
Andreas Veerpalu Estonia2020
Janne Immonen Finland2001
Jari Isometsä Finland2001
Aki Karvonen Finland1985
Harri Kirvesniemi Finland2001
Arto Koivisto Finland1981
Juha Lallukka Finland2011
Eero Mäntyranta Finland1972
Mika Myllylä Finland2001
Milla Saari Finland2001
Virpi Sarasvuo Finland2001
Tero Similä Finland2014
Pertti Teurajärvi Finland1982
Kaisa Varis Finland2003
Evi Sachenbacher-Stehle Germany2014
Yevgeniy Koshevoy Kazakhstan2011
Alexey Poltoranin Kazakhstan2020
Therese Johaug Norway2016
Martin Johnsrud Sundby Norway2016
Kornelia Kubińska Poland2010
Natalya Baranova-Masalkina Russia2002
Yuliya Chepalova Russia2009
Olga Danilova Russia2002
Yevgeny Dementyev Russia2009
Irina Khazova Russia2007
Larisa Lazutina Russia2002
Natalya Matveyeva Russia2009
Sergey Shiryayev Russia2007
Alyona Sidko Russia2009
Lyubov Yegorova Russia1997
Galina Kulakova Soviet Union1976
Johann Mühlegg Spain2002
Marina Lisogor Ukraine2014

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cross-country skiing</span> Form of snow skiing

Cross-country skiing is a form of skiing whereby skiers traverse snow-covered terrain without use of ski lifts or other assistance. Cross-country skiing is widely practiced as a sport and recreational activity; however, some still use it as a means of travel. Variants of cross-country skiing are adapted to a range of terrain which spans unimproved, sometimes mountainous terrain to groomed courses that are specifically designed for the sport.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Slalom skiing</span> Alpine skiing discipline

Slalom is an alpine skiing and alpine snowboarding discipline, involving skiing between poles or gates. These are spaced more closely than those in giant slalom, super giant slalom and downhill, necessitating quicker and shorter turns. Internationally, the sport is contested at the FIS Alpine World Ski Championships, and at the Olympic Winter Games.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Skiing</span> Recreational activity and sport using snow skis

Skiing is the use of skis to glide on snow for basic transport, a recreational activity, or a competitive winter sport. Many types of competitive skiing events are recognized by the International Olympic Committee (IOC), and the International Ski and Snowboard Federation (FIS).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Winter sports</span> Sports or recreational activities which are played on snow or ice

Winter sports or winter activities are competitive sports or non-competitive recreational activities which are played on snow or ice. Most are variations of skiing, ice skating and sledding. Traditionally, such games were only played in cold areas during winter, but artificial snow and artificial ice allow more flexibility. Playing areas and fields consist of either snow or ice.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nordic combined</span> Winter sport combining the events of cross-country skiing and ski jumping

Nordic combined is a winter sport in which athletes compete in cross-country skiing and ski jumping. The Nordic combined at the Winter Olympics has been held since the first Winter Olympics in 1924, while the FIS Nordic Combined World Cup has been held since 1983. Many Nordic combined competitions use the Gundersen method, where placement in the ski jumping segment results in time (dis)advantages added to the contestant's total in the cross-country skiing segment.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bill Koch (skier)</span> American skier (born 1955)

William Conrad Koch is an American cross-country skier who competed at the international level. A native of Guilford, Vermont, he is a graduate of the nearby Putney School in Putney. In 1974, he became the first American to win a medal in international competition, placing third in the European junior championships.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Roller skiing</span> Sport discipline

Roller skiing is an off-snow equivalent to cross-country skiing. Roller skis have wheels on their ends and are used on a hard surface to emulate cross-country skiing. The skiing techniques used are very similar to techniques used in cross-country skiing on snow.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Paralympic cross-country skiing</span> Adaptation of cross-country skiing for disabled athletes

Paralympic cross-country skiing is an adaptation of cross-country skiing for athletes with disabilities. Paralympic cross-country skiing is one of two Nordic skiing disciplines in the Winter Paralympic Games; the other is biathlon. Competition is governed by the International Paralympic Committee (IPC).

The women's 4 x 5 kilometre relay cross-country skiing competition at the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver, Canada was held on 25 February at Whistler Olympic Park at 11:15 PST.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">FIS Cross-Country World Cup</span> International cross-country skiing competition

The FIS Cross-Country World Cup is an annual cross-country skiing competition, arranged by the International Ski Federation (FIS) since 1981. The competition was arranged unofficially between 1973 and 1981, although it received provisional recognition on the 31st FIS Congress, 29–30 April 1977 in Bariloche, Argentina.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Australia at the 2002 Winter Paralympics</span> Sporting event delegation

Australia competed at the 2002 Winter Paralympics in Salt Lake City, Utah, United States from 8 March to 19 March 2002. The Salt Lake Paralympics are the eighth such winter games, the first Winter Paralympics ever in North America and the first Winter Paralympics ever set up by an Olympic organizing committee. Although many of the Paralympic expenses were covered by dual planning with the Olympics, organizers still spent about $60 million on the Paralympics, including $5 million on the opening and closing ceremonies. The Salt Lake Games featured 92 events across four sports: alpine skiing, biathlon, cross-country, and ice sledge hockey. The 36 competing countries sent a total of 416 participants. Australia was represented by six male alpine skiers: Peter Boonaerts, Bart Bunting, Michael Milton, Scott Adams, Cameron Rahles-Rahbula, and Mark Drinnan. The medal haul was seven, consisting of six gold and one silver. Australia finished 8th overall in the gold and total medal count, making it the country's most successful Winter Games in terms of gold medals.

LW12 is a para-alpine and para-Nordic sit skiing sport class defined by the International Paralympic Committee (IPC). An LW12 skier needs to meet a minimum of one of several conditions including a single below knee but above ankle amputation, monoplegia that exhibits similar to below knee amputation, legs of different length where there is at least a 7 centimetres difference, combined muscle strength in the lower extremities less than 71. For international competitions, classification is done through IPC Alpine Skiing or IPC Nordic Skiing. For sub-international competitions, classification is done by a national federation such as Alpine Canada. For para-alpine, this class is subdivided into two subclasses.: LW12.1 and LW12.2. A new sit-skier competitor with only national classification will compete as LW12.2 in international competitions until they have been internationally classified.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">LW11</span> Paralympic skiing classification

LW11 is a para-alpine and para-Nordic sit skiing sport class, a classification defined by the International Paralympic Committee (IPC for people with paralysis in the lower extremities and people with cerebral palsy that affects the lower half of the body. Outside of skiing, the competitor in this class is unable to walk. For international competitions, classification is done through IPC Alpine Skiing or IPC Nordic Skiing. For sub-international competitions, classification is done by a national federation such as Alpine Canada.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">LW10</span> Paralympic skiing classification

LW10 is a para-alpine and para-Nordic sit-skiing classification for skiers who cannot sit up without support. For international skiing competitions, classification is conducted by IPC Alpine Skiing and IPC Nordic Skiing, while national federations such as Alpine Canada handle classification for domestic competitions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">LW2 (classification)</span> Paralympic skiing classification

LW2 is a para-alpine and para-Nordic standing ski sport class defined by the International Paralympic Committee (IPC). Competitors in this class have severe disability in a lower limb, which may be a result of an amputation, or arthrodesis in the leg and hip. Depending on the type of skiing, the international classification process for LW2 skiers is handled by the IPC Alpine Skiing Technical Committee and IPC Nordic Skiing Technical Committee. National sport federations handle classification on the lower levels.

LW3 is a para-alpine and para-Nordic standing skiing sport class defined by the International Paralympic Committee (IPC) for skiers with a disability affecting both legs, with double below knee amputation or a combined strength total for both legs of 60, with 80 as the baseline for people without disabilities. For international skiing competitions, classification is done through IPC Alpine Skiing or IPC Nordic Skiing. The classification has two subclasses for para-alpine skiing: LW3.1 which is for people with double below the knee amputations or similar disabilities, and LW3.2 which is for people with cerebral palsy that involves moderate athetoid, moderate ataxic impairment or slight diplegic involvement.

LW4 is a para-alpine and para-Nordic standing skiing sport class defined by the International Paralympic Committee (IPC) for skiers who may have a disability in one lower extremity, which may be a result of a leg amputation below the knee, knee arthrodesis or a hip arthrodesis. For international skiing competitions, classification is done through IPC Alpine Skiing or IPC Nordic Skiing. A national federation such as Alpine Canada handles classification for domestic competitions.

LW5/7 is a standing para-alpine and para-Nordic skiing classification for skiers with upper extremity issues in both limbs that may include double amputation of both arms and hands or dysmelia of the upper limbs. The class has three subclasses defined by the location of the disability on the upper extremities. International classification is done by IPC Alpine Skiing and IPC Nordic Skiing. On the national level, classification is handled by national sports federation such as Cross-Country Canada.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">LW6/8</span> Paralympic skiing classification

LW6/8 is a para-alpine and para-Nordic standing skiing sport class, a classification defined by the International Paralympic Committee (IPC) for people with an upper extremity issue who have paralysis, motor paresis affecting one arm, a single upper arm amputation or CP8 classified cerebral palsy. LW6/8 skiers use two skis and one pole in both para-alpine and para-Nordic skiing.

LW9 is a para-alpine and para-Nordic standing skiing sport class, a classification defined by the International Paralympic Committee (IPC) for people with upper and lower limb function problems, and includes cerebral palsy skiers classified CP5, CP6 and CP7, along with people with hemiplegia or amputations. For international skiing competitions, classification is done through IPC Alpine Skiing or IPC Nordic Skiing. A national federation such as Alpine Canada handles classification for domestic competitions. This classification is separated into two subclasses including LW9.1 and LW9.2.

References

  1. 1 2 Kuzmin, Leonid (2006). Investigation of the most essential factors influencing ski glide (PDF) (Licentiate thesis). Luleå University of Technology. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 February 2006. Retrieved 20 October 2012.
  2. ↑ Huntford, Roland (November 2008). Two Planks and a Passion: The Dramatic History of Skiing. Bloomsbury Academic. p.  436. ISBN   978-1-84725-236-4.
  3. 1 2 Bergsland, Einar (1946): På ski. Oslo: Aschehoug.
  4. 1 2 3 Bø, Olav: Skiing throughout history, translated by W. Edson Richmond. Oslo: Samlaget, 1993.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Rolf Bryhn; Knut Are Tvedt, eds. (1990). "Kunnskapsforlagets idrettsleksikon". Kunnskapsforlagets idrettsleksikon (Encyclopedia of Sports). Oslo: Kunnskapsforlaget. p. 455. ISBN   82-573-0408-5.
  6. ↑ Brugge, Mette (20 December 2015). "Skistavens historie: Hjelpemiddel og bråkmaker". Aftenposten (in Norwegian). Oslo. p. 14. Retrieved 22 December 2015.
  7. ↑ Vaage, Jacob: Norske ski erobrer verden. Oslo: Gyldendal, 1952.
  8. 1 2 Field, Patrick; Corradini, Angelo (2007), Paal, Epp; Corradini, Angelo (eds.), "Wordloppet Anniversary Book—30 years of skiing around the world (Skating, Siitonen and Koch)" (PDF), Anniversary Book, World Loppet Ski Foundation, archived from the original (PDF) on 27 September 2015, retrieved 1 April 2016
  9. ↑ "Marathon Skate". Cross Country Ski Tips and Information. XCSki.com. 2010. Retrieved 4 January 2015.
  10. ↑ Robbins, Paul (11 January 1983). "Skier Bill Koch the winter after his cross-country championship". The Christian Science Monitor. Boston. Retrieved 13 December 2015.
  11. 1 2 Bengtsson, Bengt Erik. "Cross-country skating: How it started". Skiing History Magazine. International Skiing History Association. Retrieved 20 October 2014.
  12. 1 2 "Cross Country Skiing Equipment and History". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 11 October 2014.
  13. ↑ "Which cross-country ski disciplines are in the Olympics?". Archived from the original on 19 February 2022. Retrieved 19 February 2022.
  14. 1 2 3 "FIS History", About FIS, International Ski Federation, archived from the original on 7 August 2014, retrieved 23 October 2014
  15. 1 2 Directors (2015). "WL Rules and Regulations—Everything you need to know". Worldloppet Ski Federation. Archived from the original on 6 November 2015. Retrieved 13 December 2015.
  16. ↑ "Ski Classics – vill göra långloppen mera populära". Längd. 30 November 2010. Archived from the original on 22 December 2015. Retrieved 5 March 2015.
  17. ↑ Nilsson, David (2015). "Visma Ski Classics" . Retrieved 15 December 2015.
  18. ↑ "FIS Worldloppet Cup presented by Worldloppet—Rules". Worldloppet Ski Federation. 2015. Archived from the original on 16 April 2015. Retrieved 15 December 2015.
  19. ↑ "What is Worldloppet?". Worldloppet Ski Federation. 2012. Retrieved 23 October 2014.
  20. 1 2 3 Webmaster (2011). "Ski Orienteering". International Orienteering Federation. Retrieved 5 November 2014.
  21. ↑ IBU Congress (2012). "IBU Event and Competition Rules". Rules adopted by the 2012 10th Regular IBU Congress. International Biathlon Union. Archived from the original on 17 October 2014. Retrieved 5 November 2014.
  22. ↑ IPC (2013). "Nordic Skiing Classification". IPC Cross-Country Skiing and Biathlon. International Paralympic Committee. Retrieved 4 October 2014.
  23. ↑ "About Cross Country". US Ski Team. Archived from the original on 5 November 2014. Retrieved 5 November 2014.
  24. ↑ Talesnick, Stan (March 1983). The Better Way to Go: Cross Country Skiing. Consolidated Amethyst Communications. p.  111. ISBN   978-0-920474-17-4.
  25. 1 2 Rees, David (1981). Cross-country skiing: touring and competition (3d ed.). Toronto: Copp C. Pitman. ISBN   978-0-7730-4045-8. OCLC   300405310.
  26. 1 2 Cross Country Competencies Task Force (2002). "Cross Country Athlete Competencies" (PDF). Development resources. United States Ski and Snowboard Association. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 February 2014. Retrieved 5 November 2014.
  27. 1 2 3 Rees, Dave (2007). "Cross-Country Skiing—A Sport For Life". Cross Ski Country Canada. Retrieved 9 November 2014.
  28. 1 2 PSIA Standards Committee (June 2014). "Cross Country Certification Standards 2014" (PDF). Professional Ski Instructors of America. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 April 2015. Retrieved 22 October 2014.
  29. 1 2 3 Fish, Bryan (December 2008). "Plan your training". Training Tips from CXC. Cross Country Skier.
  30. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Kuzzy, Garrott (December 2008). "Intensity training". Cross Country Skier.{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  31. ↑ Hall, Marty (March 1982). One Stride Ahead (5 ed.). Winchester Press. p.  237. ISBN   978-0-87691-331-4.
  32. ↑ FIS Cross-Country Committee (2011). "Organizing committee manual" (PDF). Cross-Country World Cup. International Ski Federation. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 November 2014. Retrieved 9 November 2014.
  33. ↑ USSA (2004). "USSA Cross-Country Technical Handbook" (PDF). U.S. Ski and Snowboard Association. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 November 2014. Retrieved 9 November 2014.
  34. 1 2 Thomson, Jim, ed. (November 2009). "Cross Country Canada officials manual". Version 3.4. Cross Country Canada. Retrieved 9 November 2014.
  35. 1 2 FIS Cross-Country Committee (2012). "Cross-country homologation manual" (PDF) (6 ed.). International Ski Federation. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 February 2014. Retrieved 8 November 2014.
  36. ↑ Bellisle, Martha (11 January 2022). "Climate change: Athletes flag the dangers of manmade snow". AP NEWS. Archived from the original on 11 January 2022. Retrieved 12 January 2022.
  37. ↑ Culpepper, Chuck (12 February 2014). "Denial coaching". Sports on Earth. Archived from the original on 12 February 2014. Retrieved 9 November 2014.
  38. ↑ Seiler, Stephen (2001). "Doping Disaster for Finnish Ski Team: a Turning Point for Drug Testing?". News & Comment / Sports Medicine. SportScience. Retrieved 9 November 2014.
  39. ↑ "Austrian cross-country skier kicked out of Olympics for doping". Fox News. Sports. 23 February 2014. Retrieved 9 November 2014.
  40. ↑ Kelso, Paul (25 April 2007). "Six Austrian Nordic skiers banned for life by IOC for blood-doping". The Guardian. Retrieved 9 November 2014.
  41. ↑ Staff (6 July 2012). "Seks østerrikere frikjent, tre dømt etter OL-doping". www.langrenn.com (in Norwegian). langrenn.com. Retrieved 20 February 2019.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.