Exercise and music

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Children participating in a Jazzercise session Go Play, Get Fit Youth Day 2010.jpg
Children participating in a Jazzercise session

The interplay of exercise and music has long been discussed, crossing the disciplines of biomechanics, neurology, physiology, and sport psychology. Research and experimentation on the relation between music and exercise dates back to the early 1900s, when investigator Leonard Ayres found that cyclists pedaled faster in the presence of a band and music, as opposed to when it was silent. Since then, hundreds of studies have been conducted on both the physiological and psychological relationship between music and physical activity, with a number of clear cut relationships and trends emerging. Exercise and music involves the use of music before, during, and/or after performing a physical activity. Listening to music while exercising is done to improve aspects of exercise, such as strength output, exercise duration, and motivation. [1] [2] [3] The use of music during exercise can provide physiological benefits as well as psychological benefits. [4]

Contents

Separately, both exercise and music as individual factors have been proven to increase mood, decrease depression and depression like symptoms, and overall lead to better mental health . Numerous studies have shown listening to preferable music increased mood behavior, and stimulates blood flow to various regions of the brain. [5] Working out is very similar, as it releases a variety of hormones that stimulate growth, memory formation, and it has been shown to increase cognition and longevity. [6] A meta analysis of over 139 studies regarding music and exercise was performed in 2020 and found music coupled with physical exercise leads to enhanced physical performance, reduced perceived exertion, and improved physiological efficiency. [4]

Major empirical findings

Physiological effects

People "automatically feel the beat" of the music they listen to and instinctively adjust their walking pace and heart rate to the tempo of the music [7] . [8] Listening to music during exercise can promote rhythmic activity due to synchronous music. [9]

In a study published in 2009, researchers at the Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences at Liverpool John Moores University had 12 subjects ride a stationary bicycle at a pace that they could sustain for 30 minutes while listening to a song of the subject's choice. In successive trials, they rode the bikes again, with the tempo of the music variously increased or decreased by 10%, without the subject's knowledge. The researchers results showed that the riders heart rate and mileage decreased when the tempo was slowed, while they rode a greater distance, increased their heart rate and enjoyed the music more at the faster tempo. Though the participants thought their workout was harder at the more upbeat tempo, the researchers found that when the faster-paced music was heard while exercising "the participants chose to accept, and even prefer, a greater degree of effort". [10]

In young untrained subjects, music was found to cause an increase in exercise duration due to fast and loud music when compared to other subjects that did not listen to music at all. [11] Loud music may improve performance however overexposure may lead to noise-induced hearing problems. [12]

Scientists at the University of Wisconsin–La Crosse found in a 2003 study that participants who chose to listen to faster-paced music generated a higher heart rate, pedaled harder and generated more power, increasing their level of work by as much as 15% by diverting their focus to the music. The study tested 20 volunteers who listened to an MP3 player loaded with a mix of 13 songs that they selected and then rode an exercise bike for an hour at a pace and gear of their choice. The study found that heart rates rose from 133 to 146 beats per minute and power output increased accordingly, when listening to the tempo-less sound of crashing waves versus music with a medium to fast tempo. [13] [14]

To further this idea, a study from the New York Times shows how music helps boost workouts. This experiment was done by testing a control group of people working out in a normal workout setting and the same group of people working out with machines that incorporated beats and rhythms into each rep. To do this, they installed the kits into three different workout machines, one a stair-stepper, the other two weight machines with bars that could be raised or pulled down to stimulate various muscles. Thomas Hans Fritz, a researcher at the Max Planck Institute who led the study said, “Participants could express themselves on the machines by, for instance, modulating rhythms and creating melodies.” Throughout each workout, the researchers monitored the force their volunteers generated while using the machines, as well as whether the weight lifters’ movements tended to stutter or flow and how much oxygen the volunteers consumed, a reliable measure of physical effort. Afterward, the scientists asked the volunteers to rate the tolerability or unpleasantness of the session, on a scale from 1 to 20. [15]

Max strength is unaffected by the use of music during exercise. [16] [17]

In addition, it had been found that fast, loud music can lead to more optimal exercise when compared to slow, lower tempo music. Loud, high tempo music positively correlates with increased running rate and heart rate. [18]   Higher tempo music, specifically music greater than 120 BPM, leads to what is called an ergogenic effect on physical performance; an ergogenic effect is any substance or mechanical device that leads to greater physical performance. Specifically, handgrip, velocity, power, and muscle endurance all increase when listening to music before or during exercise . It has also been found that the music preference of the individual has a significant effect on the level of ergogenic effect. Essentially, a person is more likely to perform better during physical activity when they are listening to music they enjoy. [19] Interestingly enough, motivational music has been found to have a significantly greater effect on women during aerobic and anerobic exercise. Women exhibited an overall more positive effect on physical performance compared to men when listening to all types of music, while men mainly benefited from listening to synchronous music. [20]

Psychological effects

Listening to music while exercising has been found in multiple studies to create an increased sense of motivation, distracting the mind while increasing heart rate. Faster tempo music has been found by researchers to motivate exercisers to work harder when performing at a moderate pace, but peak performance has been found to be unaffected by listening to music. [21] [8]

A 2004 study by a research team from Australia, Israel and the United States found that runners performing at a pace where they were at 90% of their peak oxygen uptake enjoyed listening to music. The music had no effect however on their heart rate or running pace, regardless of the music's tempo. [21] [22]

Generally, studies suggest that athletes use music in purposeful ways to facilitate training and performance. In one study, seventy elite Swedish athletes completed a questionnaire relating the empirical motives for listening to music. The results showed that most of them often listened to music during pre-event, pre-training sessions, and warm-ups. The athletes gave as reasons for listening to music that they felt that it increased activation, positive affect, motivation, performance levels, and flow. [2] [23] There are also types workout music using brainwave entrainment that claims to boost performance. [24]

Some studies also suggest music can serve as a distractor to the pain or discomfort one experiences when performing difficult exercises. Psychologists North and Hargreaves believe that when working out and listening to music, the pain and music are competing stimuli. [20] So, listening to music may help a person ignore fatigue, complete more repetitions of a specific exercise, or just enjoy their workout more.

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Exercise</span> Physical activity that improves health

Exercise is physical activity that enhances or maintains fitness and overall health. It is performed for various reasons, including weight loss or maintenance, to aid growth and improve strength, develop muscles and the cardiovascular system, hone athletic skills, improve health, or simply for enjoyment. Many individuals choose to exercise outdoors where they can congregate in groups, socialize, and improve well-being as well as mental health.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aerobic exercise</span> Low to high intensity physical exercise

Aerobic exercise, also known as cardio, is physical exercise of low to high intensity that depends primarily on the aerobic energy-generating process. "Aerobic" is defined as "relating to, involving, or requiring oxygen", and refers to the use of oxygen to meet energy demands during exercise via aerobic metabolism adequately. Aerobic exercise is performed by repeating sequences of light-to-moderate intensity activities for extended periods of time. Examples of cardiovascular or aerobic exercise are medium- to long-distance running or jogging, swimming, cycling, stair climbing and walking.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Physical fitness</span> State of health and well-being

Physical fitness is a state of health and well-being and, more specifically, the ability to perform aspects of sports, occupations, and daily activities. Physical fitness is generally achieved through proper nutrition, moderate-vigorous physical exercise, and sufficient rest along with a formal recovery plan.

Overtraining occurs when a person exceeds their body's ability to recover from strenuous exercise. Overtraining can be described as a point where a person may have a decrease in performance and plateauing as a result of failure to consistently perform at a certain level or training load; a load which exceeds their recovery capacity. People who are overtrained cease making progress, and can even begin to lose strength and fitness. Overtraining is also known as chronic fatigue, burnout and overstress in athletes. It is suggested that there are different variations of overtraining, firstly monotonous program over training suggest that repetition of the same movement such as certain weight lifting and baseball batting can cause performance plateau due to an adaption of the central nervous system which results from a lack of stimulation. A second example of overtraining is described as chronic overwork type training where the subject may be training with too high intensity or high volume and not allowing sufficient recovery time for the body. Up to 10% of elite endurance athletes and 10% of American college swimmers are affected by overtraining syndrome.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Strength training</span> Performance of physical exercises designed to improve strength

Strength training, also known as weight training or resistance training, involves the performance of physical exercises that are designed to improve strength and endurance. It is often associated with the lifting of weights. It can also incorporate a variety of training techniques such as bodyweight exercises, isometrics, and plyometrics.

The Mozart effect is the theory that listening to the music of Mozart may temporarily boost scores on one portion of an IQ test. Popular science versions of the theory make the claim that "listening to Mozart makes you smarter" or that early childhood exposure to classical music has a beneficial effect on mental development.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">High-intensity interval training</span> Exercise strategy

High-intensity interval training (HIIT) is a training protocol alternating short periods of intense or explosive anaerobic exercise with brief recovery periods until the point of exhaustion. HIIT involves exercises performed in repeated quick bursts at maximum or near maximal effort with periods of rest or low activity between bouts. The very high level of intensity, the interval duration, and number of bouts distinguish it from aerobic (cardiovascular) activity, because the body significantly recruits anaerobic energy systems. The method thereby relies on "the anaerobic energy releasing system almost maximally".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Exertion</span>

Exertion is the physical or perceived use of energy. Exertion traditionally connotes a strenuous or costly effort, resulting in generation of force, initiation of motion, or in the performance of work. It often relates to muscular activity and can be quantified, empirically and by measurable metabolic response.

Music psychology, or the psychology of music, may be regarded as a branch of both psychology and musicology. It aims to explain and understand musical behaviour and experience, including the processes through which music is perceived, created, responded to, and incorporated into everyday life. Modern music psychology is primarily empirical; its knowledge tends to advance on the basis of interpretations of data collected by systematic observation of and interaction with human participants. Music psychology is a field of research with practical relevance for many areas, including music performance, composition, education, criticism, and therapy, as well as investigations of human attitude, skill, performance, intelligence, creativity, and social behavior.

General fitness training works towards broad goals of overall health and well-being, rather than narrow goals of sport competition, larger muscles or concerns over appearance. A regular moderate workout regimen and healthy diet can improve general appearance markers of good health such as muscle tone, healthy skin, hair and nails, while preventing age or lifestyle-related reductions in health and the series of heart and organ failures that accompany inactivity and poor diet.

Ego depletion is the idea that self-control or willpower draws upon conscious mental resources that can be taxed to exhaustion when in constant use with no reprieve. When the energy for mental activity is low, self-control is typically impaired, which would be considered a state of ego depletion. In particular, experiencing a state of ego depletion impairs the ability to control oneself later on. A depleting task requiring self-control can have a hindering effect on a subsequent self-control task, even if the tasks are seemingly unrelated. Self-control plays a valuable role in the functioning of the self on both individualistic and interpersonal levels. Ego depletion is therefore a critical topic in experimental psychology, specifically social psychology, because it is a mechanism that contributes to the understanding of the processes of human self-control. There have both been studies to support and to question the validity of ego-depletion as a theory.

Performance-enhancing substances, also known as performance-enhancing drugs (PEDs), are substances that are used to improve any form of activity performance in humans.

Sport psychology is defined as the study of the psychological basis, processes, and effects of sport. Sport is defined as any physical activity where the individuals engage for competition and health. Sport psychology is recognized as an interdisciplinary science that draws on knowledge from many related fields including biomechanics, physiology, kinesiology and psychology. It involves the study of how psychological factors affect performance and how participation in sport and exercise affect psychological and physical factors. Sport psychologists teach cognitive and behavioral strategies to athletes in order to improve their experience and performance in sports.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Music and emotion</span> Psychological relationship between human affect and music

Research into music and emotion seeks to understand the psychological relationship between human affect and music. The field, a branch of music psychology, covers numerous areas of study, including the nature of emotional reactions to music, how characteristics of the listener may determine which emotions are felt, and which components of a musical composition or performance may elicit certain reactions.

The psychology of music preference is the study of the psychological factors behind peoples' different music preferences. One study found that after researching through studies from the past 50 years, there are more than 500 functions for music. Music is heard by people daily in many parts of the world, and affects people in various ways from emotional regulation to cognitive development, along with providing a means for self-expression. Music training has been shown to help improve intellectual development and ability, though minimal connection has been found as to how it affects emotion regulation. Numerous studies have been conducted to show that individual personality can have an effect on music preference, though a recent meta-analysis has shown that personality in itself explains little variance in music preferences. These studies are not limited to American culture, as they have been conducted with significant results in countries all over the world, including Japan, Germany, Spain, and Brazil.

Fitness instructors rely heavily on the use of music during their class as a way of motivating their clients. In addition to making physical activity and exercise more enjoyable, athletes have used music as an ergogenic aid. Most of the studies that have explored the effects of music on performance was aerobic performance. Aerobic performance is assessed by measuring specific parameters of, such as maximal oxygen consumption (VO2 max), heart rate (HR), rate of perceived exertion (RPE), and blood lactate (mmol/ L), power output (W). There is conflicting data regarding the effects of music on aerobic performance. On one hand, studies have suggested that music does increase aerobic exercise performance by influencing certain parameters, such as rate of perceived exertion and time to exhaustion. However, there are studies that rebuke this notion, stating that music had no effect on aerobic performance. The reason for this disparity among data is the construction of the tests themselves. There are several factors that need to be taken into account when exploring the effects of music on exercise. Those include: exercise intensity, the subject experience in performing exercise, and type of music.

Central nervous system fatigue, or central fatigue, is a form of fatigue that is associated with changes in the synaptic concentration of neurotransmitters within the central nervous system which affects exercise performance and muscle function and cannot be explained by peripheral factors that affect muscle function. In healthy individuals, central fatigue can occur from prolonged exercise and is associated with neurochemical changes in the brain, involving serotonin (5-HT), noradrenaline, and dopamine. The roles of dopamine, noradrenaline, and serotonin in CNS fatigue are unclear, as pharmacological manipulation of these systems has yielded mixed results. Central fatigue plays an important role in endurance sports and also highlights the importance of proper nutrition in endurance athletes.

Music as a coping strategy involves the use of music in order to reduce stress, as well as many of the psychological and physical manifestations associated with it. The use of music to cope with stress is an example of an emotion-focused, adaptive coping strategy. Rather than focusing on the stressor itself, music therapy is typically geared towards reducing or eliminating the emotions that arise in response to stress. In essence, advocates of this therapy claim that the use of music helps to lower stress levels in patients, as well as lower more biologically measurable quantities such as the levels of epinephrine and cortisol. Additionally, music therapy programs have been repeatedly demonstrated to reduce depression and anxiety symptoms in the long term.

Pre-workout is a generic term for a range of bodybuilding supplement products used by athletes and weightlifters to enhance athletic performance. Supplements are taken to increase endurance, energy, and focus during a workout. Pre-workout supplements contain a variety of ingredients such as caffeine and creatine, differing by capsule or powder products. The first pre-workout product entered the market in 1982, and since then the category has grown in use. Some pre-workout products contain ingredients linked to adverse effects. Although these products are not regulated, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) warns consumers to be cautious when consuming them.

Sleep problems are found to be correlated with poor well-being and low quality of life. Persistent sleeping disturbances can lead to fatigue, irritability, and various health issues. Numerous studies have examined the positive impact of music on sleep quality. As early as 2000 B.C., lullabies were designed to aid infant sleep. For adults with sleep-related disorders, music serves as a useful intervention in reducing stress. Approximately 25% of the population facing sleep difficulties regularly use music as a tool for relaxation. This process can be either self-prescribed or under the guidance of a music therapist.

References

  1. ↑ Barney, David; Gust, Anita; Liguori, Gary (2012). "College Students' Usage of Personal Music Players (PMP) during Exercise". ICHPER-SD Journal of Research. 7 (1): 23–26. ISSN   1930-4595.
  2. 1 2 Laukka, Petric, and Lina Quick. "Emotional and Motivational Uses of Music in Sports and Exercise: A Questionnaire Study among Athletes." Psychology of Music 41 (2011): 198-215. Print.
  3. ↑ Karow, Morgan C.; Rogers, Rebecca R.; Pederson, Joseph A.; Williams, Tyler D.; Marshall, Mallory R.; Ballmann, Christopher G. (October 2020). "Effects of Preferred and Nonpreferred Warm-Up Music on Exercise Performance". Perceptual and Motor Skills. 127 (5): 912–924. doi:10.1177/0031512520928244. ISSN   0031-5125. PMID   32493179. S2CID   219315986.
  4. 1 2 Terry, Peter C.; Karageorghis, Costas I.; Curran, Michelle L.; Martin, Olwenn V.; Parsons-Smith, Renée L. (February 2020). "Effects of music in exercise and sport: A meta-analytic review". Psychological Bulletin. 146 (2): 91–117. doi:10.1037/bul0000216. ISSN   1939-1455. PMID   31804098. S2CID   208645971.
  5. ↑ Schäfer, Thomas; Sedlmeier, Peter; Städtler, Christine; Huron, David (2013-08-13). "The psychological functions of music listening". Frontiers in Psychology. 4: 511. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00511 . ISSN   1664-1078. PMC   3741536 . PMID   23964257.
  6. ↑ Mandolesi, Laura; Polverino, Arianna; Montuori, Simone; Foti, Francesca; Ferraioli, Giampaolo; Sorrentino, Pierpaolo; Sorrentino, Giuseppe (2018-04-27). "Effects of Physical Exercise on Cognitive Functioning and Wellbeing: Biological and Psychological Benefits". Frontiers in Psychology. 9: 509. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00509 . ISSN   1664-1078. PMC   5934999 . PMID   29755380.
  7. ↑ Franěk, Marek; van Noorden, Leon; Režný, Lukáš (2014-12-02). "Tempo and walking speed with music in the urban context". Frontiers in Psychology. 5: 1361. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01361 . ISSN   1664-1078. PMC   4251309 . PMID   25520682.
  8. 1 2 "The BASES expert statement on the use of music in exercise". Functional U. 9 (4): 10–13. July 2011.
  9. ↑ "Can Listening to Music Improve Your Workout?". National Center for Health Research. 2015-08-04. Retrieved 2020-11-08.
  10. ↑ Waterhouse J, Hudson P, Edwards B (2010). "Effects of music tempo upon submaximal cycling performance". Scand J Med Sci Sports. 20 (4): 662–9. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0838.2009.00948.x . PMID   19793214.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  11. ↑ Thakare, Avinash E; Mehrotra, Ranjeeta; Singh, Ayushi (2017-04-15). "Effect of music tempo on exercise performance and heart rate among young adults". International Journal of Physiology, Pathophysiology and Pharmacology. 9 (2): 35–39. ISSN 1944-8171. PMC 5435671. PMID 28533890.
  12. ↑ Van Dyck, Edith (2019-05-15). "Musical Intensity Applied in the Sports and Exercise Domain: An Effective Strategy to Boost Performance?". Frontiers in Psychology. 10. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01145. ISSN 1664-1078. PMC 6529527. PMID 31156525.
  13. ↑ Fauber, John via Milwaukee Journal Sentinel . "Workout with a tempo: Choice of music can affect exercise intensity", The Free Lance–Star , November 9, 2003. Accessed August 26, 2010.
  14. ↑ Staff. "Upbeat Music Boosts Exercise Intensity" Archived 2009-02-24 at the Wayback Machine , Medical News Today, October 20, 2003. Accessed August 26, 2010.
  15. ↑ "How Music Can Boost Our Workouts".
  16. ↑ Kose, Bereket (2018). "Does Motivational Music Influence Maximal Bench Press Strength and Strength Endurance?". Asian Journal of Education and Training. 4 (3): 197–200. doi:10.20448/journal.522.2018.43.197.200.
  17. ↑ Bartolomei, Sandro; Michele, Rocco Di; Merni, Franco (June 2015). "Effects of Self-Selected Music on Maximal Bench Press Strength and Strength Endurance". Perceptual and Motor Skills. 120 (3): 714–721. doi:10.2466/06.30.PMS.120v19x9. ISSN 0031-5125.
  18. ↑ Edworthy, Judy; Waring, Hannah (2006-12-15). "The effects of music tempo and loudness level on treadmill exercise". Ergonomics. 49 (15): 1597–1610. doi:10.1080/00140130600899104. ISSN   0014-0139.
  19. ↑ Grgic, Jozo (August 2022). "Effects of Music on Resistance Exercise Performance: A Narrative Review". Strength & Conditioning Journal. 44 (4): 77–84. doi:10.1519/SSC.0000000000000682. ISSN   1524-1602.
  20. 1 2 Karageorghis, C.I.; Priest, D.L.; Williams, L.S.; Hirani, R.M.; Lannon, K.M.; Bates, B.J. (November 2010). "Ergogenic and psychological effects of synchronous music during circuit-type exercise". Psychology of Sport and Exercise. 11 (6): 551–559. doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2010.06.004.
  21. 1 2 Reynolds, Gretchen. "Phys Ed: Does Music Make You Exercise Harder?", The New York Times , August 25, 2010. Accessed August 26, 2010.
  22. ↑ Tenenbaum, G.; Lidor, R.; Lavyan, N.; Morrow, K.; Tonnel, S.; Gershgoren, A.; Meis, J.; and Johnson, M. "The effect of music type on running perseverance and coping with effort sensations", Psychology of Sport and Exercise Volume 5, Issue 2, April 2004, Pages 89-109. doi : 10.1016/S1469-0292(02)00041-9
  23. ↑ Mohammadzadeh, Hasan; Tartibiyan, Bakhtiyar; Ahmadi, Azhdar (March 2008). "The Effects of Music on the Perceived Exertion Rate and Performance of Trained and Untrained Individuals During Progressive Exercise". EFEKTI MUZIKE NA PRIMETAN STEPEN NAPORA (NAPREZANJA) I IZVOÐENJE TRENIRANIH I NETRENIRANIH INDIVIDUA TOKOM PROGRESIVNOG VEŽBANJA. 6 (1): 67–74.
  24. ↑ Fit Catalyst - Workout Brainwave Entrainment
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