Stretching

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Samira Mustafaeva, Russian rhythmic gymnast Samira Mustafaeva Moskva.jpg
Samira Mustafaeva, Russian rhythmic gymnast
A stretching Siberian tiger Siberian Tiger by Malene Th.jpg
A stretching Siberian tiger

Stretching is a form of physical exercise in which a specific muscle or tendon (or muscle group) is deliberately expanded and flexed in order to improve the muscle's felt elasticity and achieve comfortable muscle tone. [1] The result is a feeling of increased muscle control, flexibility, and range of motion. Stretching is also used therapeutically to alleviate cramps and to improve function in daily activities by increasing range of motion. [2] [3]

Contents

In its most basic form, stretching is a natural and instinctive activity; it is performed by humans and many other animals. It can be accompanied by yawning. Stretching often occurs instinctively after waking from sleep, after long periods of inactivity, or after exiting confined spaces and areas. In addition to vertebrates (e.g. mammals and birds), spiders have also been found to exhibit stretching. [4] [5]

Increasing flexibility through stretching is one of the basic tenets of physical fitness. It is common for athletes to stretch before (for warming up) and after exercise in an attempt to reduce risk of injury and increase performance. [6]

Stretching can be dangerous when performed incorrectly. There are many techniques for stretching in general, but depending on which muscle group is being stretched, some techniques may be ineffective or detrimental, even to the point of causing hypermobility, instability, or permanent damage to the tendons, ligaments, and muscle fiber. [7] The physiological nature of stretching and theories about the effect of various techniques are therefore subject to heavy inquiry.

Although static stretching is part of some warm-up routines, long duration pre-exercise static stretching can temporarily reduce an individual's overall muscular strength and maximal performance, regardless of an individual's age, sex, or training status. [8] For this reason, an active dynamic warm-up is recommended before exercise in place of static stretching. [9] [10] [11]

Physiology

Studies have shed light on the function, in stretching, of a large protein within the myofibrils of skeletal muscles named titin. [12] A study performed by Magid and Law demonstrated that the origin of passive muscle tension (which occurs during stretching) is actually within the myofibrils, not extracellularly as had previously been supposed. [13] Due to neurological safeguards against injury such as the Golgi tendon reflex, it is normally impossible for adults to stretch most muscle groups to their fullest length without training due to the activation of muscle antagonists as the muscle reaches the limit of its normal range of motion. [7]

There are currently two explanations for how stretching increases flexibility. The first is the sensory theory, which states that stretching gradually causes the Muscle Tendon Units to adapt to reduce the sensations of pain they send to your brain. The second is the mechanical theory, which states that stretching decreases MTU stiffness, increases muscle length, or both. While there is some evidence for both of these explanations, the roles of these mechanisms are not currently well understood. [14] [15]

Psychology

Stretching has been recognized for its potential to positively influence both cognitive function and mood. Research indicates that engaging in stretching exercises may lead to a reduction in feelings of anxiety, depression, hostility, fatigue, and confusion, particularly among individuals with sedentary lifestyles. These improvements in mood have been observed to correlate with enhancements in cognitive function. For individuals who often spend prolonged periods engaged in sedentary activities, integrating stretching into their daily routines may prove beneficial. Doing so not only addresses physical tension but also promotes mental well-being. Regular stretching has been associated with decreased levels of anxiety and depression, alongside increased vigor, which could activate brain regions associated with improved cognitive abilities. [16]

Types of stretches

Stretches can be either static or dynamic. Static stretches are performed while stationary and dynamic stretches involve movement of the muscle. Stretches can also be active or passive, where active stretches use internal forces generated by the body to perform a stretch and passive stretches involve forces from external objects or people to perform the stretch. [17] [18] They can involve both passive and active components. [19]

Dynamic stretching

Dynamic stretching is a movement-based stretch aimed at increasing blood flow throughout the body while also loosening up the muscle fibers. Standard dynamic stretches typically involve slow and controlled active contraction of muscles. An example of such a dynamic stretch is lunges. Another form of dynamic stretching is ballistic stretching, which is an active stretch that involves bouncing or swinging back and forth at a high speed in order to take a muscle beyond its typical range of motion using momentum. Ballistic stretching can also be performed with tools such as resistance bands to increase the intention between sets in order to quickly warm-up the body. [20] Ballistic stretching may cause damage to the joints. [19]

Static stretching

The simplest static stretches are static–passive stretches, according to research findings. This brings the joint to its end range of motion and hold it there using external forces. There are more advanced forms of static stretching, such as proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF), which involves both active muscle contractions and passive external forces. [6] : 42  PNF stretching utilizes an aspect of neuromuscular reeducation, which may yield better results than regular static stretching in terms of induced strength. [21] PNF stretching may involve contracting either the antagonist muscles, agonist muscles, or both (CRAC). [22] The efficacy of PNF stretching and its recommendation of use may be dependent on stretching-to-performance duration. [21]

Effects of Stretching

A roller derby athlete stretching 06 12 08 Roller Dolls 003.jpg
A roller derby athlete stretching

Flexibility

Stretching's primary effect is to increase flexibility. Flexibility is commonly measured by the angle a joint can move to, or its "range of motion" (ROM). All types of stretching increase range of motion, but static stretching and PNF stretching have been shown to be the more effective than dynamic and ballistic stretching for increasing range of motion. [23]

While stretching is effective at increasing ROM it is not the only way to do so. Other exercise like strength training can also increase ROM. [24]

Strength

Stretching is commonly used as part of a dynamic warm up routine before athletic activities. While there is some disagreement to whether a dynamic warm up benefits athletic performance, several studies have shown short term gains in muscle strength after a dynamic warm up: specifically in sprint time, vertical jump height and baseball bat swing speed. [25]

Static stretching can potentially reduce muscle power in subsequent athletic activities if performed for a long time (60+ seconds). Shorter durations of static stretching don't seem to meaningfully impair muscle strength. [26]

Over the long term, stretching has the potential to slightly increase muscle strength and power, but the effect is stronger on sedentary people than active people. [14]

Reducing Injury Risk

Dynamic stretching as part of a dynamic warm up has been shown to decrease injury risk in volleyball players, soccer players, and basketball players. [25]

However, stretching alone is not known to prevent general injury risk, since current evidence is controversial. Static stretching has been shown to decrease muscle injury risk, but also increase bone and joint injury risk. [27]

Muscle Soreness

Delayed onset muscle soreness also known as DOMS, typically arises 48 hours after an exercise bout. While stretching may provide some psychological value to people for those experiencing muscle soreness there is no evidence or theoretical foundation showing that stretching decreases muscle soreness. [28] [27]

See also

References

  1. ↑ Weerapong P, Hume PA, Kolt GS (2004). "Stretching: Mechanisms and Benefits for Sports Performance and Injury Prevention". Physical Therapy Reviews. 9 (4): 189–206. doi:10.1179/108331904225007078. hdl: 10292/15115 . S2CID   71435119.
  2. ↑ Dagenais, Marc (December 2011) Softball Training Tips – Do you know how to stretch? Archived August 31, 2016, at the Wayback Machine softballperformance.com
  3. ↑ Medeiros DM, Martini TF (March 2018). "Chronic effect of different types of stretching on ankle dorsiflexion range of motion: Systematic review and meta-analysis". The Foot. 34: 28–35. doi:10.1016/j.foot.2017.09.006. PMID   29223884.
  4. ↑ Takasuka K (August 2021). "Pandiculation documented in a spider". Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment. 19 (6): 363. Bibcode:2021FrEE...19..363T. doi: 10.1002/fee.2387 . S2CID   238818374.
  5. ↑ Nagayama S, Takasuka K (2021). "New reports of confirmed pandiculation by spiders". Acta Arachnologica. 70 (2): 131–132. doi: 10.2476/asjaa.70.131 . S2CID   245579876.
  6. 1 2 Zaffagnini S, Raggi F, Silvério J, Espregueira-Mendes J, di Sarsina TR, Grassi A (2016). "Chapter 4: General Prevention Principles of Injuries". In Mayr HO, Zaffagnini S (eds.). Prevention of injuries and overuse in sports: directory for physicians, physiotherapists, sport scientists and coaches. Springer. ISBN   978-3-662-47706-9.
  7. 1 2 Tsatsouline, Pavel (2001). Relax into stretch: instant flexibility through mastering muscle tension. Dragon Door Publications. ISBN   978-0-938045-28-1.
  8. ↑ Nunes JP, Schoenfeld BJ, Nakamura M, Ribeiro AS, Cunha PM, Cyrino ES (May 2020). "Does stretch training induce muscle hypertrophy in humans? A review of the literature". Clinical Physiology and Functional Imaging. 40 (3): 148–156. doi:10.1111/cpf.12622. PMID   31984621. S2CID   210923925.
  9. ↑ Reynolds G (April 3, 2013). "Reasons Not to Stretch". Well. The New York Times. Retrieved February 24, 2023.
  10. ↑ Herman SL, Smith DT (July 2008). "Four-Week Dynamic Stretching Warm-up Intervention Elicits Longer-Term Performance Benefits". Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. 22 (4): 1286–1297. doi: 10.1519/jsc.0b013e318173da50 . PMID   18545176. S2CID   9490861.
  11. ↑ Simic L, Sarabon N, Markovic G (March 2013). "Does pre-exercise static stretching inhibit maximal muscular performance? A meta-analytical review". Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports. 23 (2): 131–48. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0838.2012.01444.x. PMID   22316148. S2CID   20104237.
  12. ↑ Hsin J, Strümpfer J, Lee EH, Schulten K (June 9, 2011). "Molecular Origin of the Hierarchical Elasticity of Titin: Simulation, Experiment, and Theory". Annual Review of Biophysics. 40 (1): 187–203. doi:10.1146/annurev-biophys-072110-125325. PMID   21332356.
  13. ↑ University of California Regents > Muscle Physiology – Types of Contractions Archived April 21, 2012, at the Wayback Machine . muscle.ucsd.edu
  14. 1 2 Arntz F, Markov A, Behm DG, Behrens M, Negra Y, Nakamura M, Moran J, Chaabene H (March 1, 2023). "Chronic Effects of Static Stretching Exercises on Muscle Strength and Power in Healthy Individuals Across the Lifespan: A Systematic Review with Multi-level Meta-analysis". Sports Medicine. 53 (3): 723–745. doi:10.1007/s40279-022-01806-9. ISSN   1179-2035. PMC   9935669 . PMID   36719536.
  15. ↑ Freitas SR, Mendes B, Le Sant G, Andrade RJ, Nordez A, Milanovic Z (2018). "Can chronic stretching change the muscle-tendon mechanical properties? A review". Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports. 28 (3): 794–806. doi:10.1111/sms.12957. ISSN   1600-0838. PMID   28801950.
  16. ↑ Sudo M, Ando S (November 19, 2019). "Effects of Acute Stretching on Cognitive Function and Mood States of Physically Inactive Young Adults". Perceptual and Motor Skills. 127 (1): 142–153. doi:10.1177/0031512519888304. ISSN   0031-5125. PMID   31744384.
  17. ↑ Boguszewski D (December 28, 2015). "Application of physiotherapeutic methods to support training and post-exercise recovery of combat sports and martial arts contestants". Journal of Combat Sports and Martial Arts. 6 (2): 85–90. doi:10.5604/20815735.1195358 (inactive July 12, 2025).{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 (link)[ unreliable medical source? ]
  18. ↑ Lederman E (2005). The Science & Practice of Manual Therapy. Elsevier Health Sciences. p. 60. ISBN   978-0-443-07432-5 . Retrieved December 10, 2025.
  19. 1 2 Appleton B. "STRETCHING AND FLEXIBILITY: Everything you never wanted to know". MIT. web.mit.edu. Retrieved June 13, 2019.
  20. ↑ Alter MJ (1998). Sport Stretch. Human Kinetics. ISBN   978-0-88011-823-1.
  21. 1 2 Behm DG, Blazevich AJ, Kay AD, McHugh M (January 2016). "Acute effects of muscle stretching on physical performance, range of motion, and injury incidence in healthy active individuals: a systematic review". Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism. 41 (1): 1–11. doi:10.1139/apnm-2015-0235. PMID   26642915.
  22. ↑ Hindle K, Whitcomb T, Briggs W, Hong J (March 2012). "Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation (PNF): Its Mechanisms and Effects on Range of Motion and Muscular Function". Journal of Human Kinetics. 31 (2012): 105–113. doi:10.2478/v10078-012-0011-y. PMC   3588663 . PMID   23487249.
  23. ↑ Konrad A, Alizadeh S, Daneshjoo A, Anvar SH, Graham A, Zahiri A, Goudini R, Edwards C, Scharf C, Behm DG (March 1, 2024). "Chronic effects of stretching on range of motion with consideration of potential moderating variables: A systematic review with meta-analysis". Journal of Sport and Health Science. 13 (2): 186–194. doi:10.1016/j.jshs.2023.06.002. ISSN   2095-2546. PMC   10980866 . PMID   37301370.
  24. ↑ Afonso J, Ramirez-Campillo R, Moscão J, Rocha T, Zacca R, Martins A, Milheiro AA, Ferreira J, Sarmento H, Clemente FM (April 7, 2021). "Strength Training versus Stretching for Improving Range of Motion: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis". Healthcare. 9 (4): 427. doi: 10.3390/healthcare9040427 . ISSN   2227-9032. PMC   8067745 . PMID   33917036.
  25. 1 2 Sople D, Wilcox RB (April 1, 2025). "Dynamic Warm-ups Play Pivotal Role in Athletic Performance and Injury Prevention". Arthroscopy, Sports Medicine, and Rehabilitation. 7 (2) 101023. doi:10.1016/j.asmr.2024.101023. ISSN   2666-061X. PMC   12034053 . PMID   40297071.
  26. ↑ Chaabene H, Behm DG, Negra Y, Granacher U (November 29, 2019). "Acute Effects of Static Stretching on Muscle Strength and Power: An Attempt to Clarify Previous Caveats". Frontiers in Physiology. 10 1468. doi: 10.3389/fphys.2019.01468 . ISSN   1664-042X. PMC   6895680 . PMID   31849713.
  27. 1 2 Warneke K, Thomas E, Blazevich AJ, Afonso J, Behm DG, Marchetti PH, Trajano GS, Nakamura M, Ayala F, Longo S, Babault N, Freitas SR, Costa PB, Konrad A, Nordez A (December 1, 2025). "Practical recommendations on stretching exercise: A Delphi consensus statement of international research experts". Journal of Sport and Health Science. 14 101067. doi:10.1016/j.jshs.2025.101067. ISSN   2095-2546. PMC   12305623 . PMID   40513717.
  28. ↑ Herbert RD, de Noronha M, Kamper SJ (July 6, 2011). Cochrane Bone, Joint and Muscle Trauma Group (ed.). "Stretching to prevent or reduce muscle soreness after exercise" . Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD004577.pub3. PMID   21735398.

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