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An emulsion is a mixture of two or more liquids that are normally immiscible owing to liquid-liquid phase separation. Emulsions are part of a more general class of two-phase systems of matter called colloids. Although the terms colloid and emulsion are sometimes used interchangeably, emulsion should be used when both phases, dispersed and continuous, are liquids. In an emulsion, one liquid is dispersed in the other. Examples of emulsions include vinaigrettes, homogenized milk, liquid biomolecular condensates, and some cutting fluids for metal working.
In pharmacology and toxicology, a route of administration is the way by which a drug, fluid, poison, or other substance is taken into the body.
Benzalkonium chloride, also known as alkyldimethylbenzylammonium chloride (ADBAC) and by the trade name Zephiran, is a type of cationic surfactant. It is an organic salt classified as a quaternary ammonium compound. ADBACs have three main categories of use: as a biocide, a cationic surfactant, and a phase transfer agent. ADBACs are a mixture of alkylbenzyldimethylammonium chlorides, in which the alkyl group has various even-numbered alkyl chain lengths.
A transdermal patch is a medicated adhesive patch that is placed on the skin to deliver a specific dose of medication through the skin and into the bloodstream. An advantage of a transdermal drug delivery route over other types of medication delivery is that the patch provides a controlled release of the medication into the patient, usually through either a porous membrane covering a reservoir of medication or through body heat melting thin layers of medication embedded in the adhesive. The main disadvantage to transdermal delivery systems stems from the fact that the skin is a very effective barrier; as a result, only medications whose molecules are small enough to penetrate the skin can be delivered by this method. The first commercially available prescription patch was approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration in December 1979. These patches administered scopolamine for motion sickness.
A topical medication is a medication that is applied to a particular place on or in the body. Most often topical medication means application to body surfaces such as the skin or mucous membranes to treat ailments via a large range of classes including creams, foams, gels, lotions, and ointments. Many topical medications are epicutaneous, meaning that they are applied directly to the skin. Topical medications may also be inhalational, such as asthma medications, or applied to the surface of tissues other than the skin, such as eye drops applied to the conjunctiva, or ear drops placed in the ear, or medications applied to the surface of a tooth. The word topical derives from Greek τοπικόςtopikos, "of a place".
1-Decanol is a straight chain fatty alcohol with ten carbon atoms and the molecular formula C10H21OH. It is a colorless to light yellow viscous liquid that is insoluble in water and has an aromatic odor. The interfacial tension against water at 20 °C is 8.97 mN/m.
Drug delivery refers to approaches, formulations, manufacturing techniques, storage systems, and technologies involved in transporting a pharmaceutical compound to its target site to achieve a desired therapeutic effect. Principles related to drug preparation, route of administration, site-specific targeting, metabolism, and toxicity are used to optimize efficacy and safety, and to improve patient convenience and compliance. Drug delivery is aimed at altering a drug's pharmacokinetics and specificity by formulating it with different excipients, drug carriers, and medical devices. There is additional emphasis on increasing the bioavailability and duration of action of a drug to improve therapeutic outcomes. Some research has also been focused on improving safety for the person administering the medication. For example, several types of microneedle patches have been developed for administering vaccines and other medications to reduce the risk of needlestick injury.
Sonophoresis is a method that utilizes ultrasound to enhance the delivery of topical medications through the stratum corneum, to the epidermis and dermis. Sonophoresis allows for the enhancement of the permeability of the skin along with other modalities, such as iontophoresis, to deliver drugs with lesser side effects. Currently, sonophoresis is used widely in transdermal drug delivery, but has potential applications in other sectors of drug delivery, such as the delivery of drugs to the eye and brain.
Skin absorption is a route by which substances can enter the body through the skin. Along with inhalation, ingestion and injection, dermal absorption is a route of exposure for toxic substances and route of administration for medication. Absorption of substances through the skin depends on a number of factors, the most important of which are concentration, duration of contact, solubility of medication, and physical condition of the skin and part of the body exposed.
Transdermal is a route of administration wherein active ingredients are delivered across the skin for systemic distribution. Examples include transdermal patches used for medicine delivery. The drug is administered in the form of a patch or ointment that delivers the drug into the circulation for systemic effect.
Thiolated polymers – designated thiomers – are functional polymers used in biotechnology product development with the intention to prolong mucosal drug residence time and to enhance absorption of drugs. The name thiomer was coined by Andreas Bernkop-Schnürch in 2000. Thiomers have thiol bearing side chains. Sulfhydryl ligands of low molecular mass are covalently bound to a polymeric backbone consisting of mainly biodegradable polymers, such as chitosan, hyaluronic acid, cellulose derivatives, pullulan, starch, gelatin, polyacrylates, cyclodextrins, or silicones.
Phonophoresis, also known as sonophoresis, is the method of using ultrasound waves to increase skin permeability in order to improve the effectiveness of transdermal drug delivery. This method intersects drug delivery and ultrasound therapy. Phonophoresis is able to achieve specific and efficient delivery of drugs that are delivered through the skin and ensure that the drug reaches the targeted area in the tissue environment. By assisting transdermal drug delivery, phonophoresis can help patients experience painless, minimal risk, and effective treatment.
Niosomes are non-ionic surfactant-based vesicles which include non-ionic surfactant and cholesterol as an excipient. They are utilized for drug delivery to specific sites to achieve desired therapeutic effects. Structurally, niosomes are similar to liposomes, as they both consist of a lipid bilayer, however, niosomes are more stable than liposomes during formation processes and storage. They can trap hydrophilic and lipophilic drugs, either in an aqueous compartment or in a vesicular membrane compartment composed of lipid material.
Mucoadhesion describes the attractive forces between a biological material and mucus or mucous membrane. Mucous membranes adhere to epithelial surfaces such as the gastrointestinal tract (GI-tract), the vagina, the lung, the eye, etc. They are generally hydrophilic as they contain many hydrogen macromolecules due to the large amount of water within its composition. However, mucin also contains glycoproteins that enable the formation of a gel-like substance. Understanding the hydrophilic bonding and adhesion mechanisms of mucus to biological material is of utmost importance in order to produce the most efficient applications. For example, in drug delivery systems, the mucus layer must be penetrated in order to effectively transport micro- or nanosized drug particles into the body. Bioadhesion is the mechanism by which two biological materials are held together by interfacial forces. The mucoadhesive properties of polymers can be evaluated via rheological synergism studies with freshly isolated mucus, tensile studies and mucosal residence time studies. Results obtained with these in vitro methods show a high correlation with results obtained in humans.
Buccal administration is a topical route of administration by which drugs held or applied in the buccal area diffuse through the oral mucosa and enter directly into the bloodstream. Buccal administration may provide better bioavailability of some drugs and a more rapid onset of action compared to oral administration because the medication does not pass through the digestive system and thereby avoids first pass metabolism.
Ethosomes are phospholipid nanovesicles used for dermal and transdermal delivery of molecules. Ethosomes were developed by Touitou et al.,1997, as additional novel lipid carriers composed of ethanol, phospholipids, and water. They are reported to improve the skin delivery of various drugs. Ethanol is an efficient permeation enhancer that is believed to act by affecting the intercellular region of the stratum corneum. Ethosomes are soft malleable vesicles composed mainly of phospholipids, ethanol, and water. These soft vesicles represent novel vesicles carriers for enhanced delivery through the skin. The size of the ethosomes vesicles can be modulated from tens of nanometers to microns.
Topical drug delivery (TDD) is a route of drug administration that allows the topical formulation to be delivered across the skin upon application, hence producing a localized effect to treat skin disorders like eczema. The formulation of topical drugs can be classified into corticosteroids, antibiotics, antiseptics, and anti-fungal. The mechanism of topical delivery includes the diffusion and metabolism of drugs in the skin. Historically, topical route was the first route of medication used to deliver drugs in humans in ancient Egyptian and Babylonian in 3000 BCE. In these ancient cities, topical medications like ointments and potions were used on the skin. The delivery of topical drugs needs to pass through multiple skin layers and undergo pharmacokinetics, hence factor like dermal diseases minimize the bioavailability of the topical drugs. The wide use of topical drugs leads to the advancement in topical drug delivery. These advancements are used to enhance the delivery of topical medications to the skin by using chemical and physical agents. For chemical agents, carriers like liposomes and nanotechnologies are used to enhance the absorption of topical drugs. On the other hand, physical agents, like micro-needles is other approach for enhancement ofabsorption. Besides using carriers, other factors such as pH, lipophilicity, and drug molecule size govern the effectiveness of topical formulation.
Intranasal drug delivery occurs when particles are inhaled into the nasal cavity and transported directly into the nervous system. Though pharmaceuticals can be injected into the nose, some concerns include injuries, infection, and safe disposal. Studies demonstrate improved patient compliance with inhalation. Treating brain diseases has been a challenge due to the blood brain barrier. Previous studies evaluated the efficacy of delivery therapeutics through intranasal route for brain diseases and mental health conditions. Intranasal administration is a potential route associated with high drug transfer from nose to brain and drug bioavailability.
An invasome are a type of artificial vesicle nanocarrier that transport substances through the skin, the most superficial biological barrier. Vesicles are small particles surrounded by a lipid layer that can carry substances into and out of the cell. Artificial vesicles can be engineered to deliver drugs within the cell, with specific applications within transdermal drug delivery. However, the skin proves to be a barrier to effective penetration and delivery of drug therapies. Thus, invasomes are a new generation of vesicle with added structural components to assist with skin penetration.
Laser-assisted drug delivery (LADD) is a drug delivery technique commonly used in the dermatology field that involves lasers. As skin acts as a protective barrier to the environment, the absorption of topical products through the epidermis is limited; thus, different drug delivery modalities have been employed to improve the efficacy of these treatments. The use of lasers in LADD has been shown to enhance the penetration of drugs transdermal, leading to a higher absorption rate, limited systemic effects, and reduced duration of treatment. Although this technique has evolved in the past decade due to its efficacy through scientific research and clinical practice, there remain some limitations regarding the safety aspect that needs to be taken into consideration.
References
- ↑ Maher, Sam; Casettari, Luca; Illum, Lisbeth (July 2019). "Transmucosal Absorption Enhancers in the Drug Delivery Field". Pharmaceutics. 11 (7): 339. doi: 10.3390/pharmaceutics11070339 . ISSN 1999-4923. PMC 6680553 . PMID 31311173.
- ↑ Williams, Adrian C; Barry, Brian W (2004-03-27). "Penetration enhancers". Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews. Breaking the Skin Barrier. 56 (5): 603–618. doi:10.1016/j.addr.2003.10.025. ISSN 0169-409X. PMID 15019749.
- ↑ Ita, Kevin (2020-01-01), Ita, Kevin (ed.), "Chapter 5 - Chemical permeation enhancers", Transdermal Drug Delivery, Academic Press, pp. 63–96, ISBN 978-0-12-822550-9 , retrieved 2022-11-15
- ↑ Lane, Majella E. (2013-04-15). "Skin penetration enhancers". International Journal of Pharmaceutics. 447 (1): 12–21. doi:10.1016/j.ijpharm.2013.02.040. ISSN 0378-5173. PMID 23462366.
- ↑ Moiseev, Roman V.; Morrison, Peter W. J.; Steele, Fraser; Khutoryanskiy, Vitaliy V. (July 2019). "Penetration Enhancers in Ocular Drug Delivery". Pharmaceutics. 11 (7): 321. doi: 10.3390/pharmaceutics11070321 . ISSN 1999-4923. PMC 6681039 . PMID 31324063.
- ↑ Thareja, Abhinav; Hughes, Helen; Alvarez-Lorenzo, Carmen; Hakkarainen, Jenni J.; Ahmed, Zubair (February 2021). "Penetration Enhancers for Topical Drug Delivery to the Ocular Posterior Segment—A Systematic Review". Pharmaceutics. 13 (2): 276. doi: 10.3390/pharmaceutics13020276 . ISSN 1999-4923. PMC 7922526 . PMID 33670762.
- ↑ Datta, Sandipan; Baudouin, Christophe; Brignole-Baudouin, Francoise; Denoyer, Alexandre; Cortopassi, Gino A. (April 2017). "The Eye Drop Preservative Benzalkonium Chloride Potently Induces Mitochondrial Dysfunction and Preferentially Affects LHON Mutant Cells". Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science. 58 (4): 2406–2412. doi:10.1167/iovs.16-20903. ISSN 0146-0404. PMC 5407244 . PMID 28444329.
- ↑ Velloso, María Inés; Landoni, Fabiana (2022-03-28). "Penetration Enhancers for the Development of Intranasal Formulations for Use in Equines". International Journal of Equine Science. 1 (1): 16–32–16–32. ISSN 2805-3117.
- ↑ Rassu, Giovanna; Ferraro, Luca; Pavan, Barbara; Giunchedi, Paolo; Gavini, Elisabetta; Dalpiaz, Alessandro (December 2018). "The Role of Combined Penetration Enhancers in Nasal Microspheres on In Vivo Drug Bioavailability". Pharmaceutics. 10 (4): 206. doi: 10.3390/pharmaceutics10040206 . ISSN 1999-4923. PMC 6321492 . PMID 30373187.
- ↑ Walsh, Edwin G; Adamczyk, Bozena E; Chalasani, Kishore B; Maher, Sam; O’Toole, Edel B; Fox, John S; Leonard, Thomas W; Brayden, David J (December 2011). "Oral delivery of macromolecules: rationale underpinning Gastrointestinal Permeation Enhancement Technology (GIPET®)". Therapeutic Delivery. 2 (12): 1595–1610. doi:10.4155/tde.11.132. ISSN 2041-5990. PMID 22833984.
- ↑ Tuvia, Shmuel; Pelled, Dori; Marom, Karen; Salama, Paul; Levin-Arama, Maya; Karmeli, Irina; Idelson, Gregory H.; Landau, Isaac; Mamluk, Roni (2014-08-01). "A Novel Suspension Formulation Enhances Intestinal Absorption of Macromolecules Via Transient and Reversible Transport Mechanisms". Pharmaceutical Research. 31 (8): 2010–2021. doi:10.1007/s11095-014-1303-9. ISSN 1573-904X. PMC 4153969 . PMID 24558008.
- ↑ Buckley, Stephen T.; Bækdal, Tine A.; Vegge, Andreas; Maarbjerg, Stine J.; Pyke, Charles; Ahnfelt-Rønne, Jonas; Madsen, Kim G.; Schéele, Susanne G.; Alanentalo, Tomas; Kirk, Rikke K.; Pedersen, Betty L.; Skyggebjerg, Rikke B.; Benie, Andrew J.; Strauss, Holger M.; Wahlund, Per-Olof (2018-11-14). "Transcellular stomach absorption of a derivatized glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonist". Science Translational Medicine. 10 (467). doi:10.1126/scitranslmed.aar7047. ISSN 1946-6234. PMID 30429357. S2CID 53434572.
- ↑ Maher, Sam; Mrsny, Randall J.; Brayden, David J. (2016-11-15). "Intestinal permeation enhancers for oral peptide delivery". Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews. Oral delivery of peptides. 106: 277–319. doi:10.1016/j.addr.2016.06.005. hdl:10197/7800. ISSN 0169-409X. PMID 27320643.