Premastication

Last updated

Premastication, pre-chewing, or kiss feeding is the act of chewing food for the purpose of physically breaking it down in order to feed another that is incapable of masticating the food by themselves. This is often done by the mother or relatives of a baby to produce baby food capable of being consumed by the child during the weaning process. The chewed food in the form of a bolus is transferred from the mouth of one individual to another, either directly mouth-to-mouth, via utensils, hands, or is further cooked or processed prior to feeding. [1] [2]

Contents

The behaviour was common throughout human history and societies and observed in non-human animals. While premastication is less common in present-day Western societies, it was commonly practised, and is still done in more traditional cultures. [3] Although the health benefits of premastication are still being actively studied, the practice appears to confer certain nutritional and immunological benefits to the infant, [4] provided that the caretaker is in good health and not infected by pathogens. [5]

Behavioural roots

Premastication and mouth-to-mouth feeding in humans is postulated to have evolved from the regurgitation of food from parent to offspring or male to female (courtship feeding) and has been observed in numerous mammals and animals of other species, including predatory social insects. [6] [7] [8] For instance, food begging behaviour observed in young wolves, wild dogs and certain gull species, which involves the young approaching the beak or mouth of the adult with their own whereupon gaping their mouths or nuzzling, the adult would regurgitate portions of food to feed the young. [9] However, in the aforementioned animals, this nuzzling behaviour and other types of mouth-to-mouth contact are also used for bonding, socialization, and courtship. [10]

In apes

Young orangutans also beg for food by such contact and accordingly their caretakers regurgitate to feed them. [11] Indeed, behaviours of mouth to mouth feeding of premasticated food and ritualized mouth to mouth contact for bonding has been observed in anthropoid apes such as gorillas, orangutans and chimpanzees. All of this supports the idea that human behaviours of kissing and feeding of premastication foods, either directly or indirectly from the mouth, have their behavioural roots in higher animals and ancestral great apes. [12]

Human kiss precursor

There is high similarity in the execution of kiss-feeding and human kisses (e.g. French kiss); in the former, the tongue is used to push food from mother to child with the child receiving both the mother's food and tongue in sucking movements, and the latter simply forgoes the premasticated food. [10] In fact, observations across various species and cultures confirms that the act of kissing and premastication have most likely evolved from the similar relationship-based feeding behaviours. [6] [10]

History and culture

Written records of premastication have been found in Ancient Egypt, though the practice likely extends back into prehistoric times to non-human ancestors. [13] For instance, in the Ancient Egyptian Ebers medical papyrus, a mother was instructed to give a medical remedy to a child through premastication. [14] In the fifth century A.D. Roman culture, premastication of infants' food by caretakers was also common, though the lack of sanitation along with the practice contributed to infant mortality. [15] Infants in Medieval Europe were fed an assortment of mashed, premasticated food or bread softened with liquids. [16]

Due to attitudes in Western medicine in the 1940s and 1950s, Native American and Fijian cultures and societies were strongly dissuaded from premastication due to concerns about the hygiene of the practice. However, the lack of knowledge regarding premastication and its prohibition by missionaries and doctors instead caused severe anemia in the infants of the population, [17] or resulted in malnourished infants and children deprived of nourishment. [18]

Although less prevalent in modern post-industrial Western societies, the offering of premasticated foods to infants is found in many traditional cultures and offers their infants numerous benefits. [19] In North America, premastication is still commonly used by Black and Hispanic mothers, [20] and commonly used by women of Inuit and Aleut peoples. [21]

In many human cultures, the act of premastication and direct mouth-to-mouth feeding is linked with the showing of affection, known as kiss feeding. [10] [13] In the Manus cultures of the Admiralty Islands, the act of premastication has been used by women to remind children and descendants of their obligations to her. [22] Some human cultures such as the people of Papua New Guinea in fact use mouth to mouth contact primarily for feeding premasticated food, with sexual kissing only observed after the arrival of Europeans. [23] This form of feeding is believed to have evolved into the modern human acts of kissing and French kissing. [10]

Many Western societies have strong aversions toward premastication, which have been compared to their similar criticisms and aversion towards breastfeeding in previous generations for similar rationale, [3] with the same societies finding breastfeeding to be a disagreeable practice performed only by the uneducated lower classes or foreign cultures [24] and altering health policies to the detriment of infant health. [25] In the late 1800s the medical community of Texas was embroiled in a debate on premastication, with those supporting the practice arguing its benefits and those against it stating that it is "filthy and repulsive and... barbaric". [14]

Health

The act of premastication is commonly found in all human societies and populations, although it is less prevalent in some than others. The evolution and selective advantage of premastication behaviours is that it supplements the infant diet of breast milk by providing access to more macro- and micro-nutrients, as well as digestive enzymes. [4] Although disease can be transmitted through saliva in the pre-chewed foods, the benefits conferred outweighed any risks of the practice during the evolution of human behaviour. [3] Furthermore, discouraging premastication as prevention to disease transmission may prove as disastrous an infant public health policy as when infants breastfeeding was discouraged in the late 1980s and early 1990s. [26] In populations with healthy caregivers, premastication is not correlated with negative health consequences, [27] with potential benefits and pitfalls of this practice greatly depend on the dietary and medical circumstances of the provider and child. [28]

The true scope of the benefits of premastication and its prevalence in different societies is still under research, though there appears to be some consensus on the nutritional benefits of the practice. [4] As a comorbidity with caretaker health and education, as well as societal access to proper healthcare and nutrition, the impacts of premastication on child health requires further studies and trials prior to the introduction of policies encouraging or dissuading its practice. [27] [29]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Infant formula</span> Manufactured food designed for feeding infants

Infant formula, also called baby formula, simply formula, baby milk or infant milk, is an ultra-processed food designed and marketed for feeding to babies and infants under 12 months of age, usually prepared for bottle-feeding or cup-feeding from powder or liquid. The U.S. Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FFDCA) defines infant formula as "a food which purports to be or is represented for special dietary use solely as a food for infants by reason of its simulation of human milk or its suitability as a complete or partial substitute for human milk".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Baby bottle</span> Bottle containing liquid (usually milk or formula) to nourish infant

A baby bottle, nursing bottle, or feeding bottle is a bottle with a teat attached to it, which creates the ability to drink via suckling. It is typically used by infants and young children, or if someone cannot drink from a cup, for feeding oneself or being fed. It can also be used to feed non-human mammals.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Weaning</span> Process of abandoning maternal nourishment in mammals

Weaning is the process of gradually introducing an infant human or another mammal to what will be its adult diet while withdrawing the supply of its mother's milk.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Breast milk</span> Milk produced by the mammary glands in the breast of a human female

Breast milk or mother's milk is milk produced by mammary glands located in the breast of a human female. Breast milk is the primary source of nutrition for newborns, containing fat, protein, carbohydrates and variable minerals and vitamins. Breast milk also contains substances that help protect an infant against infection and inflammation, whilst also contributing to healthy development of the immune system and gut microbiome.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Baby food</span> Food made especially for infants

Baby food is any soft, easily consumed food other than breastmilk or infant formula that is made specifically for human babies between six months and two years old. The food comes in many varieties and flavors that are purchased ready-made from producers, or it may be table food eaten by the family that has been mashed or otherwise broken down.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kangaroo care</span> Technique of newborn care

Kangaroo mother care (KMC), which involves skin-to-skin contact (SSC), is an intervention to care for premature or low birth weight (LBW) infants. The technique and intervention is the recommended evidence-based care for LBW infants by the World Health Organization (WHO) since 2003.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Galactagogue</span> Substance promoting lactation

A galactagogue, or galactogogue, also known as a lactation inducer or milk booster, is a substance that promotes lactation in humans and other animals. It may be synthetic, plant-derived, or endogenous. They may be used to induce lactation and to treat low milk supply.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Stunted growth</span> Reduced growth rate in human development

Stunted growth, also known as stunting or linear growth failure, is defined as impaired growth and development manifested by low height-for-age. It is a primary manifestation of malnutrition and recurrent infections, such as diarrhea and helminthiasis, in early childhood and even before birth, due to malnutrition during fetal development brought on by a malnourished mother. The definition of stunting according to the World Health Organization (WHO) is for the "height-for-age" value to be less than two standard deviations of the median of WHO Child Growth Standards. Stunted growth is usually associated with poverty, unsanitary environmental conditions, maternal undernutrition, frequent illness, and/or inappropriate feeding practice and care during early years of life.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lactational amenorrhea</span> Post-partum infertility due to breast feeding

Lactational amenorrhea, also called postpartum infertility, is the temporary postnatal infertility that occurs when a woman is amenorrheic and fully breastfeeding.

Baby-led weaning is an approach to adding complementary foods to a baby's diet of breast milk or formula. BLW facilitates oral motor development and strongly focuses on the family meal, while maintaining eating as a positive, interactive experience. Baby-led weaning allows babies to control their solid food consumption by "self-feeding" from the start of their experience with food. The term weaning does not imply giving up breast milk or formula, but simply indicates the introduction of foods other than breast milk or formula.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History and culture of breastfeeding</span>

The history and culture of breastfeeding traces changing social, medical and legal attitudes to breastfeeding, the act of feeding a child breast milk directly from breast to mouth. Breastfeeding may be performed by the infant's mother or by a surrogate, typically called a wet nurse.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Breastfeeding difficulties</span> Medical condition

Breastfeeding difficulties refers to problems that arise from breastfeeding, the feeding of an infant or young child with milk from a woman's breasts. Although babies have a sucking reflex that enables them to suck and swallow milk, and human breast milk is usually the best source of nourishment for human infants, there are circumstances under which breastfeeding can be problematic, or even in rare instances, contraindicated.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Breastfeeding</span> Feeding of babies or young children with milk from a womans breast

Breastfeeding, or nursing, is the process by which human breast milk is fed to a child. Breast milk may be from the breast, or may be pumped and fed to the infant. The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends that breastfeeding begin within the first hour of a baby's life and continue as often and as much as the baby wants. Health organizations, including the WHO, recommend breastfeeding exclusively for six months. This means that no other foods or drinks, other than vitamin D, are typically given. The WHO recommends exclusive breastfeeding for the first 6 months of life, followed by continued breastfeeding with appropriate complementary foods for up to 2 years and beyond. Of the 135 million babies born every year, only 42% are breastfed within the first hour of life, only 38% of mothers practice exclusive breastfeeding during the first six months, and 58% of mothers continue breastfeeding up to the age of two years and beyond.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Breastfeeding promotion</span> Activities and policies to promote health through breastfeeding

Breastfeeding promotion refers to coordinated activities and policies to promote health among women, newborns and infants through breastfeeding.

Infant feeding is the practice of feeding infants. Breast milk provides the best nutrition when compared to infant formula. Infants are usually introduced to solid foods at around four to six months of age.

Breastfeeding by HIV-infected mothers is the practice of breastfeeding of HIV-infected mothers and include those who may want to or are currently breastfeeding. HIV can be transmitted to the infant through breastfeeding. The risk of transmission varies and depends on the viral load in the mother's milk. An infant can be infected with HIV throughout the duration of the pregnancy or during childbirth (intrapartum).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Human milk microbiome</span> Community of microorganisms in human milk

The human milk microbiota, also known as human milk probiotics (HMP), refers to the microbiota (community of microorganisms) residing in the human mammary glands and breast milk. Human breast milk has been traditionally assumed to be sterile, but more recently both microbial culture and culture-independent techniques have confirmed that human milk contains diverse communities of bacteria which are distinct from other microbial communities inhabiting the human body.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Breastfeeding and mental health</span>

Breastfeeding and mental health is the relationship between postpartum breastfeeding and the mother's and child's mental health. Research indicates breastfeeding may have positive effects on the mother's and child's mental health, though there have been conflicting studies that question the correlation and causation of breastfeeding and maternal mental health. Possible benefits include improved mood and stress levels in the mother, lower risk of postpartum depression, enhanced social emotional development in the child, stronger mother-child bonding and more. Given the benefits of breastfeeding, the World Health Organization (WHO), the European Commission for Public Health (ECPH) and the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) suggest exclusive breastfeeding for the first six months of life. Despite these suggestions, estimates indicate 70% of mothers breastfeed their child after birth and 13.5% of infants in the United States are exclusively breastfed. Breastfeeding promotion and support for mothers who are experiencing difficulties or early cessation in breastfeeding is considered a health priority.

The first 1,000 days describes the period from conception to 24 months of age in child development. This is considered a "critical period" in which sufficient nutrition and environmental factors have life-long effects on a child's overall health. While adequate nutrition can be exceptionally beneficial during this critical period, inadequate nutrition may also be detrimental to the child. This is because children establish many of their lifetime epigenetic characteristics in their first 1,000 days. Medical and public health interventions early on in child development during the first 1,000 days may have higher rates of success compared to those achieved outside of this period.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Delayed onset of lactation</span>

Delayed onset of lactation (DOL) describes the absence of copious milk secretion (onset of lactation) within the first 72 hours following childbirth. It affects around 20–40% of lactating women, the prevalence differs among distinct populations.

References

  1. ↑ Holmes, Wendy (2007), "Influences on maternal and child nutrition in the highlands of the northern Lao PDR", Asia Pac J Clin Nutr, 16 (3): 537–545, PMID   17704036
  2. ↑ Zhang, Yuanyuan (May 2007), "The role of pre-mastication in the evolution of complementary feeding strategies: a bio-cultural analysis" (PDF), Cornell University College of Agriculture and Life Sciences Honors Theses
  3. 1 2 3 Pelto, Greta; Zhang, Yuanyuan; Habicht, Jean-Pierre (January 2010), "Premastication: the second arm of infant and young child feeding for health and survival?", Journal of Maternal and Child Nutrition, 6 (1): 4–18, doi:10.1111/j.1740-8709.2009.00200.x, PMC   6860819 , PMID   20073131
  4. 1 2 3 Aggett, Peter (2010), "Premastication", Maternal and Child Nutrition, 6 (1): 2–3, doi:10.1111/j.1740-8709.2009.00226.x, PMC   6860488 , PMID   20055926
  5. ↑ Levison, Judy; Gillespie, Susan L.; Montgomery, Elizabeth (2011), "Think twice before recommending pre-masticated food as a source of infant nutrition", Maternal & Child Nutrition, 7 (1): 104, author reply 105–6, doi:10.1111/j.1740-8709.2010.00289.x, PMC   6860487 , PMID   21143589
  6. 1 2 Eibl-Eibesfeldt, Irenäus (1971), Love and hate: the natural history of behavior patterns, Aldine Transaction, ISBN   978-0202020389
  7. ↑ Wheeler, W.M. 1923. Social life among the insects. 375 pages. London.
  8. ↑ Eberhard, W. (1974) The natural history and behaviour of the wasp Trigonopsis cameronii Kohl (Sphecidae). Trans. Royal Ent. Soc. London 125(3): 295-328
  9. ↑ Wilson, Edward O. (1980), Sociobiology, Harvard University Press
  10. 1 2 3 4 5 Eibl-Eibesfeldt, Irenäus (1983), "Chapter 3: A comparative approach to human ethology", in Rajecki, D. W. (ed.), Comparing behavior: studying man studying animals, Routledge
  11. ↑ Russon, Anne E.; Bard, Kim A.; Parker, Sue Taylor, Reaching Into Thought:The Minds of the Great Apes, Cambridge University Press, Nov 26, 1998
  12. ↑ Eibl-Eibesfeldt, Irenäus (Oct 30, 2007), Human Ethology, Transaction Publishers, p. 138, ISBN   9780202366616
  13. 1 2 Kirshenbaum, Sheril (Jan 5, 2011), The Science of Kissing: What Our Lips Are Telling Us, Hachette Digital, Inc.
  14. 1 2 Radbill, Samuel X. (October 1981), "Infant Feeding through the Ages", Clin Pediatr, 20 (10): 613–621, doi:10.1177/000992288102001001, PMID   7023787, S2CID   10361664
  15. ↑ Soren, David; Soren, Noelle (1999), A Roman Villa and a Late Roman Infant Cemetery:Excavation at Poggio Gramignano, Lugnano in Teverina, L'ERMA di BRETSCHNEIDER
  16. ↑ Forgeng, Jeffrey L.; Singman, Jeffrey L. (1999), Daily Life in Medieval Europe, Greenwood Publishing Group
  17. ↑ Pijoan, M; Elkin, C.A. (1944), "Secondary anemia due to prolonged and exclusive milk feeding among Shoshone indian infants" (PDF), Journal of Nutrition, 27: 67–75, doi:10.1093/jn/27.1.67
  18. ↑ Jansen, A. A. J.; Parkinson, Susan; Robertson, A. F. S. (1990), Food and Nutrition in Fiji: Food production, composition, and intake, editorips usp.ac.fj, pp. 331–392, ISBN   9789820200609
  19. ↑ Konner, Melvin (May 31, 2010), The Evolution of Childhood: Relationships, Emotion, Mind, Harvard University Press
  20. ↑ Andrews, Margaret M.; Boyle, Joyceen S. (2008), Transcultural Concepts in Nursing Care (5 ed.), Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
  21. ↑ Sprott, Julie E. (1992), Alaska Native Parents in Anchorage:Perspectives on Childrearing, University Press of America
  22. ↑ Schwartz, Theodore (1975), "Relations among generations in Time-Limited Cultures", Ethos, 3 (2): 309–322, doi: 10.1525/eth.1975.3.2.02a00150
  23. ↑ Bailey, K. V. (1963), "Premastication of infant food in the New Guinea Highlands.", South Pacific Commission, Technical. Information Circular., 61 (1): 1–3
  24. ↑ Nathoo, Tasnim; Ostry, Aleck (Jun 1, 2009), The One Best Way?: Breastfeeding History, Politics, and Policy in Canada, Wilfrid Laurier Univ. Press
  25. ↑ Kuhn, Louise; Aldrovandi, Grace M.; Sinkala, Moses; Kankasa, Chipepo; Semrau, Katherine; Mwiya, Mwiya; Kasonde, Prisca; Scott, Nancy; Vwalika, Cheswa; Walter, Jan; Bulterys, Marc (2008-07-10). "Effects of Early, Abrupt Weaning on HIV-free Survival of Children in Zambia". The New England Journal of Medicine. 359 (2): 130–141. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa073788. ISSN   0028-4793. PMC   2577610 . PMID   18525036.
  26. ↑ Pelto, Gretel H.; Habicht, Jean-Pierre (2011), "Letter to the Editor: Discouraging premastication may do more harm than good: Response to the letter by Levison et al. 2010", Maternal and Child Nutrition, 7 (1): 105–106, doi:10.1111/j.1740-8709.2010.00291.x, PMC   6860494
  27. 1 2 Zhao, Ai; Zheng, Wei; Xue, Yong; Li, Hao; Tan, Shengjie; Zhao, Wenzhi; Wang, Peiyu; Zhang, Yumei (2017-04-06). "Prevalence of premastication among children aged 6–36 months and its association with health: A cross-sectional study in eight cities of China". Maternal & Child Nutrition. 14 (1): e12448. doi:10.1111/mcn.12448. ISSN   1740-8695. PMC   6866172 . PMID   28382711.
  28. ↑ Van Esterik, Penny; Williams, Anthony; Fewtrell, Mary S.; Tolboom, Jules J.M.; Lack, Gideon; Penagos, Martin (January 2010), "Commentaries on Premastication: the second arm of infant and young child feeding for health and survival? By Gretel Pelto, Yuanyuan Zhang & Jean-Pierre Habicht", Maternal & Child Nutrition, 6 (1): 19–26, doi:10.1111/j.1740-8709.2009.00227.x, PMC   6860646 , PMID   20055927
  29. ↑ Habicht, Jean-Pierre; Pelto, Gretel H. (2016-05-26). "Addressing epidemiological and public health analytic challenges in outcome and impact research: a commentary on 'Prechewing Infant Food, Consumption of Sweets and Dairy and Not Breastfeeding are Associated with Increased Diarrhea Risk of Ten Month Old Infants'". Maternal & Child Nutrition. 12 (3): 625–631. doi:10.1111/mcn.12327. ISSN   1740-8695. PMC   6860170 . PMID   27229538.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.