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| Occupation | |
|---|---|
Occupation type | Profession |
Activity sectors | Show business, movie theater |
A projectionist is a person who operates a movie projector, particularly as an employee of a movie theater. Projectionists are also known as "operators". [1]
| | |
| Occupation | |
|---|---|
Occupation type | Profession |
Activity sectors | Show business, movie theater |
A projectionist is a person who operates a movie projector, particularly as an employee of a movie theater. Projectionists are also known as "operators". [1]
N.B. The dates given in the subject headings are approximate.
The need for professional projectionists arose from the commercial showing of movie films to the general public in buildings specifically designed for the purpose or using variety theatres as part of the "bill", which began towards the end of the first decade of the twentieth century. Before the emergence of purpose-built movie theaters, film projectors in venues such as fairgrounds, music halls and Nickelodeons were usually operated by a showman or presenter, in the same way as a lanternist. The light source for most projectors in the early period was limelight, which did not require an electricity supply.
Between approximately 1905 and 1915, two factors combined to transform the role of the projectionist into a separate job with a specific profile of skills and training. Concerns over the flammability of nitrate film, following several major fires during the cinema's first decade [2] resulted in the increasing regulation of film exhibition, including the requirement that projectors be housed in fireproof booths, segregated from the auditorium. In the United Kingdom, for example, this requirement was introduced in the Cinematograph Act 1909, and effectively prevented the projectionist from also carrying out a public-facing role. The legal right to act as a projectionist in a public movie theater was, and to some extent still is, regulated, to varying degrees in different jurisdictions. [3] Some required projectionists to be licensed by local or central government, [4] and this process sometimes required projectionists to undergo assessments or sit exams. Trade union-based regulation of the profession was also widespread in some jurisdictions, in which the licensing of projectionists was incorporated into collective bargaining agreements between employers and unions. In the United States, projectionists were sometimes 'pooled out' to theatre companies via their union. Closed shop working by projectionists was common in British cinema chains until the early 1980s.[ citation needed ] The original reason for this regulation was the necessity for safety precautions for the screening of nitrate prints, and hence the requirement that projectionists should be formally trained to handle them to ensure public safety. But the formal training and licensing of projectionists continued in most of the US and Europe well after nitrate had been superseded in the 1950s, and in a minority of jurisdictions it still continues.[ citation needed ]
With the advent of feature-length films during the early to mid-teens and the increasing tendency for film screenings to be the main or only event that took place in a purpose-built theater, rather than incorporated into other forms of live entertainment, the role of the projectionist became more specialised and began to incorporate elements of showmanship once again. The safety precautions associated with nitrate required 35mm film prints to be shipped in reels no longer than 1,000 feet (approximately 15 minutes at 16fps). In order show a feature-length film without interruption while the following reel is laced up, two projectors focused on the same screen were used, with the projectionist 'changing over' from one to the other at the end of each reel. 2,000 foot 'double' reels were gradually introduced from the early 1930s onwards (approximately 20 minutes at the standardized sound speed of 24 fps). Until the conversion to sound, electric motors were relatively uncommon on 35mm theater projectors: most were hand-cranked by the projectionist. Contemporary accounts suggest that hand cranking at a consistent speed took a considerable amount of skill. [5] Presentation technique also began to include tasks such as operating auditorium lighting systems [dimmers], curtains [side-tabs] and masking systems and lantern slide projectors. [6] During the 1920s, movie theaters became larger and projection equipment had to adapt to this. Limelight illumination was replaced by the electrically powered carbon arc lamp, and with the arrival of sound electric motors were installed to drive projectors (a more constant speed was required for sound playback than could be achieved by hand cranking). The operation and basic maintenance of audio equipment also became part of the projectionist's job following the introduction of sound.
The technology of cinema projection, and with it the role of the projectionist, changed fundamentally over an extended period between the early 1950s and late 1960s. Nitrate film was superseded by cellulose triacetate for release prints in the US and Europe over about a five-year period following the stock's commercial launch in October 1948 (though older nitrate prints remained in circulation for quite a long time afterwards and are still occasionally utilized in licensed[ by whom? ] cinemas for special screenings). With nitrate went the restrictions on reel lengths previously necessitated by the fire risk, with the result that systems were developed to enable the projection of a complete feature film using a single, unattended projector. Two essential technologies were needed to enable this: the long-play device, a.k.a. platter, i.e. a turntable 4–6 feet in diameter or (in the case of Sword Systems and Sabre Systems by EPRAD) an extremely large film reel 3–5 feet in diameter either of which enabled the reels of a feature presentation to be joined together into a single roll, in some cases up to 30,000 feet (approx. six hours at 24fps) in length; and the xenon arc lamp, which can burn continuously and unattended for as long as is needed (most carbon arc lamphouses will run for a maximum of 40–50 minutes before the carbon rod needs replacing, and require regular adjustment by the projectionist during that time). Automation systems were also introduced, which could be programmed in advance of each screening to perform functions such as operating auditorium lighting, adjusting volume levels and changing audio formats. Some would argue that these technologies reduced the skill level or downgraded the showmanship element of the projectionist's job (for example, by eliminating the need for changeovers and nitrate handling precautions). Others would argue that more advanced skills were needed in other areas. With the introduction of widescreen in the early 1950s, projectionists had to cope with the additional lenses, aperture plates and masking systems needed for different aspect ratios for the first time. [7] Multiple channel audio systems using magnetic sound and 70mm film prints were also introduced in the 1950s, and these required specialist projection skills to handle. Like nitrate film prints, xenon arc bulbs require special safety precautions: if handled incorrectly they can explode, [8] causing serious injury to the projectionist. Staffing levels in projection booths decreased rapidly during this period. In the classical "movie palace", the labour-intensive nature of changeovers, carbon arc lamps, and nitrate handling required large workforces of projectionists, with up to six or seven working in a single booth[ citation needed ] and a rigid management hierarchy within the profession being common. In contrast, the multiplexes of the 1980s and '90s were designed in such a way that a single projectionist can operate simultaneous screenings in 10-20 auditoria, and it is unusual for these venues to have a total projectionist workforce of more than three or four.
The job description of the projectionist began to vary considerably according to the type and location of theatre he or she worked in. In many of the multiplex theatre chains that emerged in the 1980s, the role of the projectionist was largely confined to assembling screening programs (consisting of a feature film print and other supporting material such as advertisements and trailers) onto a long-play platter or tower device, programming automation systems and very basic equipment maintenance such as cleaning film path components and the routine replacement of life-limited parts. More extensive maintenance and repairs are carried out by technicians employed centrally by the parent company and who visit its theatres to conduct maintenance on a regular cycle. In smaller chains and independent theaters, and especially those situated in geographically remote locations, projectionists are more likely to undertake more extensive maintenance and repair duties, both on a theater's projection and sound equipment and on other infrastructure in the building, e.g. heating and air conditioning plant. 35mm release prints continue to be shipped on 2,000 foot reels to the present day, even though very few theaters still present films using a two-projector system with changeovers. A number of attempts have been made over the years to introduce larger shipping reels for print distribution, but none has gained widespread acceptance. [9]
Some larger theater chains are now in the process of eliminating the projectionist's job altogether. [10] In order to avoid paying a higher wage rate and to circumvent skilled labor laws, some companies (such as Cinemark Theaters) use the job title "Booth Usher" for an employee who simply carries out basic screening operations and does not perform any program assembly, maintenance or repair procedures. Their starting wage is the same as that for popcorn concessionists and ushers ($7.84 per hour in Ohio as of August 2009). [11] Smaller theaters in this chain and those with union bargaining contracts that specify a minimum wage utilize management for these duties. In Britain, this started to happen early 2000 onward as labour laws were wiped out by then.[ citation needed ]
The introduction of digital cinema projection, on a significant scale from approximately 2006 to 2008, is rapidly bringing to an end the role of the projectionist as a professionally skilled operator of film-based projection equipment in mainstream theatres. As of November 2010, the major chains in the US and Europe are in the process of a large-scale conversion to digital projection, in some ways comparable to the mass installation of sound equipment in the late 1920s and early 1930s. This has essentially been made possible by the virtual print fee [12] model of financing the equipment and installation costs, in which studios and equipment manufacturers provide equipment to theatres on a hire-purchase basis. [13] The basic operation of digital cinema servers and projectors requires little more than routine IT skills and can be performed by a theatre's front-of-house and managerial staff with minimal extra training. Within a few years, it is likely that projectionists, in the traditional sense of the word, will only be found in the small number of arthouse, cinematheque and repertory theatres that will continue to show film prints from archival collections. In May 2013, the BBC reported that by October 2013, "there will be no cinemas left in this country projecting 35mm". [14]
A projectionist in a modern theater in North America or Europe will typically carry out some or all of the following duties.
Digital cinema refers to adoption of digital technology within the film industry to distribute or project motion pictures as opposed to the historical use of reels of motion picture film, such as 35 mm film. Whereas film reels have to be shipped to movie theaters, a digital movie can be distributed to cinemas in a number of ways: over the Internet or dedicated satellite links, or by sending hard drives or optical discs such as Blu-ray discs.
35 mm film is a film gauge used in filmmaking, and the film standard. In motion pictures that record on film, 35 mm is the most commonly used gauge. The name of the gauge is not a direct measurement, and refers to the nominal width of the 35 mm format photographic film, which consists of strips 1.377 ± 0.001 inches (34.976 ± 0.025 mm) wide. The standard image exposure length on 35 mm for movies is four perforations per frame along both edges, which results in 16 frames per foot of film.
70 mm film is a wide high-resolution film gauge for motion picture photography, with a negative area nearly 3.5 times as large as the standard 35 mm motion picture film format. As used in cameras, the film is 65 mm (2.6 in) wide. For projection, the original 65 mm film is printed on 70 mm (2.8 in) film. The additional 5 mm contains the four magnetic strips, holding six tracks of stereophonic sound. Although later 70 mm prints use digital sound encoding, the vast majority of existing and surviving 70 mm prints pre-date this technology.
A movie theater, cinema, or cinema hall, also known as a movie house, picture house, the movies, the pictures, picture theater, the silver screen, the big screen, or simply theater is a building that contains auditoria for viewing films for public entertainment. Most, but not all, movie theaters are commercial operations catering to the general public, who attend by purchasing tickets.
IMAX is a proprietary system of high-resolution cameras, film formats, film projectors, and theaters known for having very large screens with a tall aspect ratio and steep stadium seating.
Home cinema, also called home theaters or theater rooms, are home entertainment audio-visual systems that seek to reproduce a movie theater experience and mood using consumer electronics-grade video and audio equipment that is set up in a room or backyard of a private home. Some studies show films are rated better and generate more intense emotions when watched in a movie theater, however, convenience is a major appeal for home cinemas. In the 1980s, home cinemas typically consisted of a movie pre-recorded on a LaserDisc or VHS tape; a LaserDisc Player or VCR; and a heavy, bulky large-screen cathode ray tube TV set, although sometimes CRT projectors were used instead. In the 2000s, technological innovations in sound systems, video player equipment and TV screens and video projectors have changed the equipment used in home cinema set-ups and enabled home users to experience a higher-resolution screen image, improved sound quality and components that offer users more options. The development of Internet-based subscription services means that 2016-era home theatre users do not have to commute to a video rental store as was common in the 1980s and 1990s
Cinerama is a widescreen process that originally projected images simultaneously from three synchronized 35mm projectors onto a huge, deeply curved screen, subtending 146-degrees of arc. The trademarked process was marketed by the Cinerama corporation. It was the first of several novel processes introduced during the 1950s when the movie industry was reacting to competition from television. Cinerama was presented to the public as a theatrical event, with reserved seating and printed programs, and audience members often dressed in their best attire for the evening.
The Odeon Luxe Leicester Square is a prominent cinema building in the West End of London. Built in the Art Deco style and completed in 1937, the building has been continually altered in response to developments in cinema technology, and was the first Dolby Cinema in the United Kingdom.
Digital Light Processing (DLP) is a set of chipsets based on optical micro-electro-mechanical technology that uses a digital micromirror device. It was originally developed in 1987 by Larry Hornbeck of Texas Instruments. While the DLP imaging device was invented by Texas Instruments, the first DLP-based projector was introduced by Digital Projection Ltd in 1997. Digital Projection and Texas Instruments were both awarded Emmy Awards in 1998 for the DLP projector technology. DLP is used in a variety of display applications from traditional static displays to interactive displays and also non-traditional embedded applications including medical, security, and industrial uses.
A movie projector is an opto-mechanical device for displaying motion picture film by projecting it onto a screen. Most of the optical and mechanical elements, except for the illumination and sound devices, are present in movie cameras. Modern movie projectors are specially built video projectors.
A reel is an object around which a length of another material is wound for storage. Generally a reel has a cylindrical core with flanges around the ends to retain the material wound around the core. In most cases the core is hollow in order to pass an axle and allow the reel to rotate like a wheel, and crank or handles may exist for manually turning the reel, while others are operated by motors.
A film leader is a length of film attached to the head or tail of a film to assist in threading a projector or telecine. A leader attached to the beginning of a reel is sometimes known as a head leader, or simply head, and a leader attached to the end of a reel known as a tail leader or foot leader, or simply tail or foot.
The Electric Palace cinema, Harwich, is one of the oldest purpose-built cinemas to survive complete with its silent screen, original projection room and ornamental frontage still intact. It was designed by the architect Harold Ridley Hooper of Ipswich, Suffolk and opened on 29 November 1911.
Ultra Panavision 70 and MGM Camera 65 were, from 1957 to 1966, the marketing brands that identified motion pictures photographed with Panavision's anamorphic movie camera lenses on 65 mm film. Ultra Panavision 70 and MGM Camera 65 were shot at 24 frames per second (fps) using anamorphic camera lenses. Ultra Panavision 70 and MGM Camera 65's anamorphic lenses compressed the image 1.25 times, yielding an extremely wide aspect ratio of 2.76:1.
A cue mark, also known as a cue dot, a cue blip, a changeover cue or simply a cue is a visual indicator used with motion picture film prints, usually placed in the upper right-hand corner of a filmframe. Cue dots are also used as a visual form of signalling on television broadcasts.
A release print is a copy of a film that is provided to a movie theater for exhibition.
A film – also called a movie, motion picture, moving picture, picture, photoplay or (slang) flick – is a work of visual art that simulates experiences and otherwise communicates ideas, stories, perceptions, feelings, beauty, or atmosphere through the use of moving images. These images are generally accompanied by sound and, more rarely, other sensory stimulations. The word "cinema", short for cinematography, is often used to refer to filmmaking and the film industry, and to the art form that is the result of it.
A projection booth, projection box or Bio box is a room or enclosure for the machinery required for the display of movies on a reflective screen, located high on the back wall of the presentation space. It is common in a movie theater.
Cumberland Drive-In Theatre is an outdoors movie theater located in Newville, Pennsylvania. It is capable of hosting 400 vehicles and has a 45 by 96 foot movie screen. As of August 2013, it has been operated by the same family for over 60 years.
The DP70 is a model of motion picture projector, of which approximately 1,500 were manufactured by the Electro-Acoustics Division of Philips between 1954 and about 1968. It is notable for having been the first mass-produced theater projector in which 4/35 and 5/70 prints could be projected by a single machine, thereby enabling wide film to become a mainstream exhibition format, for its recognition in the 1963 Academy Awards, which led to it being described as "the only projector to win an Oscar", and for its longevity: a significant number remain in revenue-earning service as of February 2014.
