QS-21 is a purified plant extract used as a vaccine adjuvant. It is derived from the soap bark tree (Quillaja saponaria), which is native to the countries of Chile, Peru, and Bolivia. [1] The crude drug (Quillajae cortex, Quillaia) is imported from Peru and Chile. [2]
The extract contains water-soluble triterpene glycosides, which are members of a family of plant-based compounds called saponins. It has been tested as an adjuvant in various vaccines in attempts to improve their efficacy. It is believed to enhance both humoral and cell-mediated immunity. [1]
QS-21 has been clinically evaluated as a vaccine adjuvant. As of 2002 [update] , it had been tested in more than 3000 patients in 60 clinical trials.
Direct, unencapsuled QS-21 is very liable to hydrolysis. It also causes immediate pain at injection site and in vitro causes hemolysis. All of these can be prevented by packaging QS-21 into lipid-based particles, which also have the added advantage of targeting its delivery to phagocytes. It is part of: [3]
Isolation of QS-21 destroys the soap bark tree, prompting governments to regulate industrial extraction. [1] The United States has invoked the 1950 Defense Production Act to preserve vaccine raw materials for its own companies. [7]
A semi-synthesis strategy from 2013 relies on purifying the prosapogenin (triterpene and branched trisaccharide) part of the molecule and adding the rest of QS-21 synthetically, doubling the yield over simple isolation (amount produced from a given amount of tree bark). This semi-synthetic approach has also facilitated experimentation with alternative acyl chain compositions. [8]
In 2017, FDA approved the Shingrix vaccine which makes use of the extracted form of QS-21 made by Agenus under the trade name Stimulon. [9] Agenus remains the sole US manufacturer of FDA-approved QS-21 as of 2021. [10]
Saponins, including QS-21, are present throughout the biomass of Quillaja saponaria Mol., though typically at lower concentrations in the branches, trunk, and leaves compared to the bark. However, these non-bark components represent a significantly larger biomass volume and thus contribute a higher total yield of saponins. [11] The practice of pruning Quillaja trees to harvest this biomass for saponin extraction has been used sustainably by the food industry since 2000. [12] In 2022, the company Q-Vant communicated having achieved the fractioning of QS-21 from any part of the Quillaja plant, including branches and trunks obtained through renewable pruning methods. [13]
Several companies have succeeded in isolating the compound from plant tissue cultures of the soapbark plant.
The aforementioned Agenus created a spin-off company called SaponiQx to manage its QS-21 business. SaponiQx submitted the Master File for its cultured plant cell (cpc) version of QS-21 to the US FDA in 2023. [14] An animal study using this cpc-QS-21 was published in 2024. [15]
In 2024, a team at the John Innes Centre in Norwich, UK identified the complete 20-step biosynthetic pathway of QS-21 and cloned it into tobacco. [16]
In 2024, an international team of collaborators succeed in engineering yeast to perform the complete biosynthesis of QS-21. [17] One of the scientists pointed out that the yeast process is around 1000 times faster than trees because only mature trees produce QS-21. "Even at the levels we're producing it, it's cheaper than producing it from the plant." [17]
QS-21 has been made by total chemical synthesis, but required an inefficient 76-step process that is not commercially viable. This is not unlike the total chemical synthesis of many other complex biomolecules, which served mainly to confirm their structure rather than to produce an economically-viable source. [17]
The Matrix-M adjuvant consists of two different populations of physically stable nanoparticles mixed at a defined ratio (85% Matrix-A + 15% Matrix-C). Matrix-A and Matrix-C contain different Q. saponaria saponin fractions with complementary properties. Matrix-C particles contain Fraction-C saponins (mainly consisting of QS-21)...