Rainbow Herbicides

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'Ranch Hand' run.jpg
Four USAF C-123s spraying Rainbow Herbicide over South Vietnam as part of Operation Ranch Hand
Agent Orange at Johnston Atoll 1976.jpg
Agent Orange stored at Johnston Atoll in 1976, following the end of US involvement in Vietnam

The Rainbow Herbicides are a group of tactical-use chemical weapons used by the United States military in Southeast Asia during the Vietnam War. Success with Project AGILE field tests in 1961 with herbicides in South Vietnam was inspired by the British use of herbicides and defoliants during the Malayan Emergency in the 1950s, which led to the formal herbicidal program Trail Dust (see Operation Ranch Hand). Herbicidal warfare is the use of substances primarily designed to destroy the plant-based ecosystem of an agricultural food production area and/or to destroy dense foliage which provides the enemy with natural tactical cover.

Contents

Background

The United States discovered 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) during World War II. It was recognized as toxic and was combined with large amounts of water or oil to function as a weed-killer. Army experiments with the chemical eventually led to the discovery that 2,4-D combined with 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4,5-T) yielded a more potent herbicide. [1] Some batches of 2,4,5-T manufactured for Rainbow Herbicide use were later found to have been contaminated with synthesis-byproduct dioxins including 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzodioxin (TCDD). Work by researcher Alvin Lee Young identifies examples of Agent Pink and Agent Green containing as much as double the TCDD concentrations observed in Agent Purple or Agent Orange. [2]

Types

This is a list of the different types of agents used, their active ingredients, and the years they were being used during the Vietnam War as follows: [3]

NameContentused
Agent Green 100% n-butyl ester 2,4,5-Tprior to 1963 [2]
Agent Pink 100% 2,4,5-T (60% n-butyl ester 2,4,5-T, and 40% iso-butyl ester of 2,4,5-T)prior to 1964 [2]
Agent Purple 50% 2,4,5-T (30% n-butyl ester of 2,4,5-T, and 20% iso-butyl ester of 2,4,5-T) and 50% n-butyl ester of 2,4-D 1961–1965
Agent Blue (Phytar 560G)65.6% organic arsenicical (cacodylic acid (Ansar 138) and its sodium salt sodium cacodylate) [2] 1962–1971 [4]
Agent White (Tordon 101)21.2% (acid weight basis) triisopropanolamine salts of 2,4-D and 5.7% picloram 1966–1971 [2] [4]
Agent Orange Herbicide Orange (HO)50% n-butyl ester 2,4-D and 50% n-butyl ester 2,4,5-T1965–1970
Agent Orange II50% n-butyl ester 2,4-D and 50% isooctyl ester 2,4,5-Tafter 1968 [5] [6]
Agent Orange III66.6% n-butyl 2,4-D and 33.3% n-butyl ester 2,4,5-T. [7]
Enhanced Agent Orange, Orange Plus, Super Orange (SO), or Dow Herbicide M-3393Standardized Agent Orange mixture of 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T combined with an oil-based mixture of picloram, a proprietary Dow Chemical Company product called Tordon 101, an ingredient of Agent White. [8] [9]

Use

In Vietnam, the early large-scale defoliation missions (1962–1964) used 8,208 U.S. gal (31,070 L; 6,835 imp gal) of Agent Green, 122,792 U.S. gal (464,820 L; 102,246 imp gal) of Agent Pink, and 14,500 U.S. gal (55,000 L; 12,100 imp gal) of Agent Purple. These were dwarfed by the 11,712,860 U.S. gal (44,338,000 L; 9,753,000 imp gal) of Agent Orange (both versions) used from 1965 to 1970. Agent White started to replace Orange in 1966; 145,239,853 U.S. gal (549,792,650 L; 120,937,476 imp gal) of White were used. The only agent used on a large scale in an anti-crop role was Agent Blue, with 142,166,656 U.S. gal (538,159,330 L; 118,378,504 imp gal) used. [10] The bombardment occurred most heavily in the area of the Ho Chi Minh Trail. [1]

The rainbow herbicides damaged the ecosystems and cultivated lands of Vietnam, and led to buildup of dioxins in the regional food chain. [1] About 4.8 million people were affected. [11] The environmental destruction caused by this defoliation has been described by Swedish Prime Minister Olof Palme, lawyers, historians and other academics as an ecocide. [12] [13] [14] [15] [16]

In addition to testing and using the herbicides in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia, the US military also tested the "Rainbow Herbicides" and many other chemical defoliants and herbicides in the United States, [17] Canada, Puerto Rico, Korea, India, and Thailand [18] from the mid-1940s to the late 1960s. Herbicide persistence studies of Agent Orange and Agent White were conducted in the Philippines. [19] The Philippine herbicide test program was conducted in cooperation with the University of the Philippines College of Forestry, and was also described in a 1969 issue of The Philippine Collegian, the college's newspaper. Super or enhanced Agent Orange was tested by representatives from Fort Detrick and Dow Chemical in Texas, Puerto Rico, Hawaii, and later in Malaysia, in a cooperative project with the International Rubber Research Institute. [8] Picloram in Agent White and Super-Orange was contaminated by hexachlorobenzene (HCB).[ citation needed ] The Canadian government also tested these herbicides and used them to clear vegetation for artillery training. [20]

A 2003 study in Nature found that the military underreported its use of rainbow herbicides by 2,493,792 U.S. gal (9,440,030 L; 2,076,516 imp gal). [11]

Long-term effects

Professor Nguyen Thi Ngoc Phuong, at Tu Du Obstetrics and Gynecology Hospital is pictured with a group of disabled children in 2004. A vietnamese Professor is pictured with a group of handicapped children.jpg
Professor Nguyen Thi Ngoc Phuong, at Từ Dũ Obstetrics and Gynecology Hospital is pictured with a group of disabled children in 2004.

Vietnam remains heavily contaminated by dioxin-like compounds, which are classified as persistent organic pollutants. These compounds remain in the water table and have built up in the tissues of local fauna. However, the contamination has begun to deteriorate, and the forest canopy has regrown somewhat since the Vietnam War. [1]

Dioxins are endocrine disruptors and may have effects on the children of people who were exposed. [1]

Rainbow herbicides and other dioxin-like compounds are endocrine disruptors, and evidence suggests that they continue to have long-term health consequences many years after exposure. Because they mimic, or interfere with, hormonal function, adverse effects can include problems with reproduction, growth and development, immune function, and metabolic function. As an example, dioxins and dioxin-like compounds influence the hormone dehydoepiandosterone (DHEA), which has a role in the determination of male or female sex characteristics. There have been thousands of documented instances of health problems and birth defects associated with rainbow herbicide exposure in Vietnam, where tested levels remain high in the soil, water, and atmosphere, decades after initial exposure.

Soldiers exposed to Rainbow Herbicides in Southeast Asia reported long-term health effects, which led to several lawsuits against the U.S. government and the manufacturers of the chemical. [1]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Agent Orange</span> Herbicide used by the US in the Vietnam War

Agent Orange is a chemical herbicide and defoliant, one of the tactical use Rainbow Herbicides. It was used by the U.S. military as part of its herbicidal warfare program, Operation Ranch Hand, during the Vietnam War from 1961 to 1971. The U.S. was strongly influenced by the British who used Agent Orange during the Malayan Emergency. It is a mixture of equal parts of two herbicides, 2,4,5-T and 2,4-D. In addition to its damaging environmental effects, traces of dioxin found in the mixture have caused major health problems and deformities for many individuals who were exposed and for their children.

Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins (PCDDs), or simply dioxins, are a group of long-lived polyhalogenated organic compounds that are primarily anthropogenic, and contribute toxic, persistent organic pollution in the environment.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Herbicide</span> Type of chemical used to kill unwanted plants

Herbicides, also commonly known as weed killers, are substances used to control undesired plants, also known as weeds. Selective herbicides control specific weed species while leaving the desired crop relatively unharmed, while non-selective herbicides kill plants indiscriminately. The combined effects of herbicides, nitrogen fertilizer, and improved cultivars has increased yields of major crops by three to six times from 1900 to 2000.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Operation Ranch Hand</span> 1962–1971 US herbicidal warfare operation in the Vietnam War

Operation Ranch Hand was a U.S. military operation during the Vietnam War, lasting from 1962 until 1971. Largely inspired by the British use of chemicals 2,4,5-T and 2,4-D during the Malayan Emergency in the 1950s, it was part of the overall herbicidal warfare program during the war called "Operation Trail Dust". Ranch Hand involved spraying an estimated 19 million U.S. gallons (72,000 m3) of defoliants and herbicides over rural areas of South Vietnam in an attempt to deprive the Viet Cong of food and vegetation cover. Areas of Laos and Cambodia were also sprayed to a lesser extent. According to the Vietnamese government, the chemicals caused 400,000 deaths. The United States government has described these figures as "unreliable".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Defoliant</span> Chemical sprayed or dusted on plants to cause its leaves to fall off

A defoliant is any herbicidal chemical sprayed or dusted on plants to cause their leaves to fall off. Defoliants are widely used for the selective removal of weeds in managing croplands and lawns. Worldwide use of defoliants, along with the development of other herbicides and pesticides, allowed for the Green Revolution, an increase in agricultural production in mid-20th century. Defoliants have also been used in warfare as a means to deprive an enemy of food crops and/or hiding cover, most notably by the United Kingdom during the Malayan Emergency and the United States in the Vietnam War. Defoliants were also used by Indonesian forces in various internal security operations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Agent Blue</span> Type of herbicide used in the Vietnam War

Agent Blue is one of the "rainbow herbicides" that is known for use by the United States during the Vietnam War. It contained a mixture of dimethylarsinic acid and its related salt, sodium cacodylate, and water.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Agent Purple</span> Herbicide and defoliant

Agent Purple is the code name for a powerful herbicide and defoliant used by the U.S. military in their herbicidal warfare program during the Vietnam War. The name comes from the purple stripe painted on the barrels to identify the contents. Largely inspired by the British use of herbicides and defoliants during the Malayan Emergency, it was one of the so-called "Rainbow Herbicides" that included the more infamous Agent Orange. Agent Purple and Orange were also used to clear brush in Canada.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Herbicidal warfare</span> Use of substances to destroy crops or other plants

Herbicidal warfare is the use of substances primarily designed to destroy the plant-based ecosystem of an area. Although herbicidal warfare use chemical substances, its main purpose is to disrupt agricultural food production and/or to destroy plants which provide cover or concealment to the enemy, not to asphyxiate or poison humans and/or destroy human-made structures. Herbicidal warfare has been forbidden by the Environmental Modification Convention since 1978, which bans "any technique for changing the composition or structure of the Earth's biota".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Agent White</span>

Agent White is the code name for a herbicide used by the U.S. military in its herbicidal warfare program during the Vietnam War. The name comes from the regulatory requirements of identifying each container of the various herbicides through the addition of colored stripes. The colors used were orange, purple, pink, blue, and white by the manufacturers to ensure that the contents were easily identifiable during shipment and usage, as the colors were selected by the U.S. government. Largely inspired by the British use of herbicides and defoliants during the Malayan Emergency, it was one of the so-called "rainbow herbicides".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Agent Green</span>

Agent Green is the code name for a powerful herbicide and defoliant used by the U.S. military in its herbicidal warfare program during the Vietnam War. The name comes from the green stripe painted on the barrels to identify the contents. Largely inspired by the British use of herbicides and defoliants during the Malayan Emergency, it was one of the so-called "Rainbow Herbicides". Agent Green was only used between 1962 and 1964, during the early "testing" stages of the spraying program.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Picloram</span> Chemical compound

Picloram is a systemic herbicide used for general woody plant control. It also controls a wide range of broad-leaved weeds, but most grasses are resistant. A chlorinated derivative of picolinic acid, picloram is in the pyridine family of herbicides.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2,4,5-Trichlorophenoxyacetic acid</span> Chemical compound

2,4,5-Trichlorophenoxyacetic acid, a synthetic auxin, is a chlorophenoxy acetic acid herbicide used to defoliate broad-leafed plants. It was developed in the late 1940s, synthesized by reaction of 2,4,5-Trichlorophenol and chloroacetic acid. It was widely used in the agricultural industry until being phased out, starting in the late 1970s due to toxicity concerns. Agent Orange, a defoliant used by the British in the Malayan Emergency and the U.S. in the Vietnam War, was equal parts 2,4,5-T and 2,4-D. 2,4,5-T itself is toxic with a NOAEL of 3 mg/kg/day and a LOAEL of 10 mg/kg/day. Agent Pink contained 100% 2,4,5-T. Additionally, the manufacturing process for 2,4,5-T contaminates this chemical with trace amounts of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD). TCDD is a carcinogenic persistent organic pollutant with long-term effects on the environment. With proper temperature control during production of 2,4,5-T, TCDD levels can be held to about .005 ppm. Before the TCDD risk was well understood, early production facilities lacked proper temperature controls and individual batches tested later were found to have as much as 60 ppm of TCDD.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Agent Pink</span>

Agent Pink is the code name for a powerful herbicide and defoliant used by the U.S. military in its herbicidal warfare program during the Vietnam War. The name comes from the pink stripe painted on the barrels to identify the contents. Largely inspired by the British use of herbicides and defoliants during the Malayan Emergency, it was one of the rainbow herbicides that included the more infamous Agent Orange. Agent Pink was only used during the early "testing" stages of the spraying program before 1964.

Gagetown is a 2009 documentary film that looks into the massive defoliant spray program that was used at CFB Gagetown since 1956. The chemical herbicides used include 50/50 mixtures of 2,4-D/ 2,4,5-T, and Tordon 101, also known as Agent Orange and Agent White.

This is an index of articles relating to pesticides.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid</span> Herbicide

2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid is an organic compound with the chemical formula Cl2C6H3OCH2CO2H. It is usually referred to by its ISO common name 2,4-D. It is a systemic herbicide that kills most broadleaf weeds by causing uncontrolled growth, but most grasses such as cereals, lawn turf, and grassland are relatively unaffected.

The Enlist Weed Control System is an agricultural system that includes seeds for genetically modified crops that are resistant to Enlist and the Enlist herbicide; spraying the herbicide will kill weeds but not the resulting crop. The system was developed by Dow AgroSciences, part of Dow Chemical Company. In October 2014 the system was registered for restricted use in Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Ohio, South Dakota and Wisconsin by the US Environmental Protection Agency. In 2013, the system was approved by Canada for the same uses.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Impact of Agent Orange in Vietnam</span>

Agent Orange is a herbicide, classified as a defoliant, that was used most notably by the U.S. military during the Vietnam War. Its primary purpose was strategic deforestation, destroying the forest cover and food resources necessary for the implementation and sustainability of the North Vietnamese style of guerilla warfare. The U.S. Agent Orange usage reached an apex during Operation Ranch Hand, in which the material was sprayed over 4.5 million acres of land in Vietnam from 1961 to 1971.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Environmental impact of the Vietnam War</span>

The Vietnam War had a major and long-lasting impact on the environment of the countries affected. The environment of Vietnam was severely degraded by the use of defoliants, bombing and other military activities. North Vietnam utilized the geography and ecology of the region to conceal their activities and move resources, such as via the complex network of tunnels and paths in the Ho Chi Minh trail. In response, the United States developed and deployed technologies and campaigns to clear forests and destabilize soil, greatly impacting the environment. Over time, the long-term agricultural productivity in parts of Vietnam was reduced by many herbicidal agents and bombing campaigns. The war has also been linked to extensive deforestation and influenced the hydrology of the Mekong region.

Carol Van Strum is an American environmental activist who since 1975 has fought against the spraying of herbicides, including Agent Orange, in the Siuslaw National Forest in Oregon. Her subsequent research, including over 20,000 documents revealing corporate and government cover-ups, was donated to the Poison Papers project in 2017. In 2018, Van Strum received the David Brower Lifetime Achievement Award for her contributions to forestry policy favoring selective harvest without the use of herbicides.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Ornitz, Sheri L. "Agent Orange and its Continuing Effects Archived 2015-02-09 at the Wayback Machine ". British Travel Health Association Journal, vol. 10. Winter 2007.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 Alvin L. Young (2009-04-21). The History, Use, Disposition and Environmental Fate of Agent Orange. Springer. p. 34. ISBN   978-0-387-87486-9.
  3. ↑ Stellman, Jeanne; Stellman, Steven D.; Christian, Richard; Weber, Tracy; Tomasallo, Carrie (17 April 2003). "The extent and patterns of usage of Agent Orange and other herbicides in Vietnam" (PDF). Nature. 422 (6933): 681–7. Bibcode:2003Natur.422..681S. doi:10.1038/nature01537. ISSN   0028-0836. PMID   12700752. S2CID   4419223.
  4. 1 2 Committee to Review the Health Effects in Vietnam Veterans of Exposure to Herbicides; Institute of Medicine (1994). Veterans and Agent Orange: Health Effects of Herbicides Used in Vietnam. National Academies Press. pp. 89–90. ISBN   978-0-309-55619-4.
  5. ↑ Stephen Bull (2004). Encyclopedia of Military Technology and Innovation. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 6. ISBN   978-1-57356-557-8.
  6. ↑ Daniel Vallero (2011). Biomedical Ethics for Engineers: Ethics and Decision Making in Biomedical and Biosystem Engineering. Academic Press. p. 73. ISBN   978-0-08-047610-0.
  7. ↑ Archives Search Report Findings for Field Testing of 2,4,5-T and Other Herbicides (PDF) (Report). U.S. Army Corps of Engineers St. Louis District. 4 April 2012. p. 116. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 December 2016. Retrieved 8 August 2013.
  8. 1 2 Corcoran, Charles A. (December 1968). "Operational Evaluation of Super-Orange (U)- unclassified". Military Assistance Command Vietnam(MAC-V) to Joint Chief of Staff (JCS) message for CINCPAC, USARPAC Ofc Science Adviser. via National Security Archives at George Washington University.{{cite web}}: Missing or empty |url= (help)
  9. ↑ DGSC-PI Memorandum for the record: Herbicides reformulation thereof (Operation Guns and Butter meeting) (Report). Dow Chemical Company. September 9, 1966.
  10. ↑ "Herbicides" entry in Spencer C. Tucker, ed. (2011). The Encyclopedia of the Vietnam War (2nd ed.). ABC-CLIO. ISBN   978-1-85109-961-0.
  11. 1 2 Wright, Laura. "New Study Finds Agent Orange Use Was Underestimated". Scientific American, April 17, 2003.
  12. ↑ Zierler, David (2011). The invention of ecocide: agent orange, Vietnam, and the scientists who changed the way we think about the environment. Athens, Ga.: Univ. of Georgia Press. ISBN   978-0-8203-3827-9.
  13. ↑ "How Imperative Is It To Consider Ecocide As An International Crime?". IJLLR. 2022-12-18. Retrieved 2023-06-21.
  14. ↑ Falk, Richard A. (1973). "Environmental Warfare and Ecocide — Facts, Appraisal, and Proposals". Bulletin of Peace Proposals. 4 (1): 80–96. doi:10.1177/096701067300400105. ISSN   0007-5035. JSTOR   44480206. S2CID   144885326.
  15. ↑ "Industrial disasters from Bhopal to present day: why the proposal to make 'ecocide' an international offence is persuasive – The Leaflet". theleaflet.in. 2022-02-17. Retrieved 2023-06-21.
  16. ↑ Giovanni, Chiarini (2022-04-01). "Ecocide: From the Vietnam War to International Criminal Jurisdiction? Procedural Issues In-Between Environmental Science, Climate Change, and Law". SSRN   4072727.
  17. ↑ "Herbicide Tests and Storage in the U.S." Department of Veterans Affairs. Retrieved 16 June 2010.
  18. ↑ "Herbicide Tests and Storage Outside the U.S." Department of Veterans Affairs. Retrieved 16 June 2010.
  19. ↑ Fryer, J. D.; Blackman, G. E. (January 1972). "Preliminary Proposals for the Study of Persistence of Herbicides in Forest and Mangrove Soil". NAS committee on the effect of Herbicides in Vietnam. National Academy of Science, (NAS).{{cite web}}: Missing or empty |url= (help)
  20. ↑ Pelletier, Richard. "Agent Purple Deadlier than Agent Orange." Bangor Daily News, 1 July 2005.

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