Related Research Articles
In computing, BIOS is firmware used to provide runtime services for operating systems and programs and to perform hardware initialization during the booting process. The BIOS firmware comes pre-installed on an IBM PC or IBM PC compatible's system board and exists in some UEFI-based systems to maintain compatibility with operating systems that do not support UEFI native operation. The name originates from the Basic Input/Output System used in the CP/M operating system in 1975. The BIOS originally proprietary to the IBM PC has been reverse engineered by some companies looking to create compatible systems. The interface of that original system serves as a de facto standard.
The Intel 80286 is a 16-bit microprocessor that was introduced on February 1, 1982. It was the first 8086-based CPU with separate, non-multiplexed address and data buses and also the first with memory management and wide protection abilities. The 80286 used approximately 134,000 transistors in its original nMOS (HMOS) incarnation and, just like the contemporary 80186, it can correctly execute most software written for the earlier Intel 8086 and 8088 processors.
The 8086 is a 16-bit microprocessor chip designed by Intel between early 1976 and June 8, 1978, when it was released. The Intel 8088, released July 1, 1979, is a slightly modified chip with an external 8-bit data bus, and is notable as the processor used in the original IBM PC design.
The Intel 8088 microprocessor is a variant of the Intel 8086. Introduced on June 1, 1979, the 8088 has an eight-bit external data bus instead of the 16-bit bus of the 8086. The 16-bit registers and the one megabyte address range are unchanged, however. In fact, according to the Intel documentation, the 8086 and 8088 have the same execution unit (EU)—only the bus interface unit (BIU) is different. The 8088 was used in the original IBM PC and in IBM PC compatible clones.
x86 is a family of complex instruction set computer (CISC) instruction set architectures initially developed by Intel based on the 8086 microprocessor and its 8-bit-external-bus variant, the 8088. The 8086 was introduced in 1978 as a fully 16-bit extension of 8-bit Intel's 8080 microprocessor, with memory segmentation as a solution for addressing more memory than can be covered by a plain 16-bit address. The term "x86" came into being because the names of several successors to Intel's 8086 processor end in "86", including the 80186, 80286, 80386 and 80486. Colloquially, their names were "186", "286", "386" and "486".
The Intel MCS-51 is a single chip microcontroller (MCU) series developed by Intel in 1980 for use in embedded systems. The architect of the Intel MCS-51 instruction set was John H. Wharton. Intel's original versions were popular in the 1980s and early 1990s, and enhanced binary compatible derivatives remain popular today. It is a complex instruction set computer, but also has some of the features of RISC architectures, such as a large register set and register windows, and has separate memory spaces for program instructions and data.
In computer architecture, 64-bit integers, memory addresses, or other data units are those that are 64 bits wide. Also, 64-bit central processing units (CPU) and arithmetic logic units (ALU) are those that are based on processor registers, address buses, or data buses of that size. A computer that uses such a processor is a 64-bit computer.
The Intel x86 computer instruction set architecture has supported memory segmentation since the original Intel 8086 in 1978. It allows programs to address more than 64 KB (65,536 bytes) of memory, the limit in earlier 80xx processors. In 1982, the Intel 80286 added support for virtual memory and memory protection; the original mode was renamed real mode, and the new version was named protected mode. The x86-64 architecture, introduced in 2003, has largely dropped support for segmentation in 64-bit mode.
In computing, protected mode, also called protected virtual address mode, is an operational mode of x86-compatible central processing units (CPUs). It allows system software to use features such as segmentation, virtual memory, paging and safe multi-tasking designed to increase an operating system's control over application software.
x86 assembly language is the name for the family of assembly languages which provide some level of backward compatibility with CPUs back to the Intel 8008 microprocessor, which was launched in April 1972. It is used to produce object code for the x86 class of processors.
In the x86 assembly language, the JMP instruction performs an unconditional jump. Such an instruction transfers the flow of execution by changing the program counter. There are a number of different opcodes that perform a jump; depending on whether the processor is in real mode or protected mode, and an override instruction is used, the instructions may take 16-bit, 32-bit, or segment:offset pointers.
INT is an assembly language instruction for x86 processors that generates a software interrupt. It takes the interrupt number formatted as a byte value.
Memory-mapped I/O (MMIO) and port-mapped I/O (PMIO) are two complementary methods of performing input/output (I/O) between the central processing unit (CPU) and peripheral devices in a computer. An alternative approach is using dedicated I/O processors, commonly known as channels on mainframe computers, which execute their own instructions.
The iAPX 432 is a discontinued computer architecture introduced in 1981. It was Intel's first 32-bit processor design. The main processor of the architecture, the general data processor, is implemented as a set of two separate integrated circuits, due to technical limitations at the time. Although some early 8086, 80186 and 80286-based systems and manuals also used the iAPX prefix for marketing reasons, the iAPX 432 and the 8086 processor lines are completely separate designs with completely different instruction sets.
A processor register is a quickly accessible location available to a computer's processor. Registers usually consist of a small amount of fast storage, although some registers have specific hardware functions, and may be read-only or write-only. In computer architecture, registers are typically addressed by mechanisms other than main memory, but may in some cases be assigned a memory address e.g. DEC PDP-10, ICT 1900.
Memory segmentation is an operating system memory management technique of dividing a computer's primary memory into segments or sections. In a computer system using segmentation, a reference to a memory location includes a value that identifies a segment and an offset within that segment. Segments or sections are also used in object files of compiled programs when they are linked together into a program image and when the image is loaded into memory.
On the x86 architecture, a debug register is a register used by a processor for program debugging. There are six debug registers, named DR0...DR7, with DR4 and DR5 as obsolete synonyms for DR6 and DR7. The debug registers allow programmers to selectively enable various debug conditions associated with a set of four debug addresses. Two of these registers are used to control debug features. These registers are accessed by variants of the MOV instruction. A debug register may be either the source operand or destination operand. The debug registers are privileged resources; the MOV instructions that access them can only be executed at privilege level zero. An attempt to read or write the debug registers when executing at any other privilege level causes a general protection fault.
An instruction set architecture (ISA) is an abstract model of a computer, also referred to as computer architecture. A realization of an ISA is called an implementation. An ISA permits multiple implementations that may vary in performance, physical size, and monetary cost ; because the ISA serves as the interface between software and hardware. Software that has been written for an ISA can run on different implementations of the same ISA. This has enabled binary compatibility between different generations of computers to be easily achieved, and the development of computer families. Both of these developments have helped to lower the cost of computers and to increase their applicability. For these reasons, the ISA is one of the most important abstractions in computing today.
The VEX prefix and VEX coding scheme are an extension to the IA-32 and x86-64 instruction set architecture for microprocessors from Intel, AMD and others.
A hardware reset or hard reset of a computer system is a hardware operation that re-initializes the core hardware components of the system, thus ending all current software operations in the system. This is typically, but not always, followed by booting of the system into firmware that re-initializes the rest of the system, and restarts the operating system.
References
- ↑ "iAPX 86,88 User's Manual" (PDF). Intel. 1981. System Reset, p. 2-29, table 2-4. Retrieved April 15, 2018.
- ↑ "AMD 80286 Datasheet" (PDF). AMD. 1985. p. 13.
the 286 begins execution in real mode with the instruction at physical location FFFFF0H.
- ↑ "iAPX 286 Programmer's Reference Manual" (PDF). Intel. 1983. Appendix D, iAPX 86/88 Software Compatibility Considerations, p. D-2. Retrieved April 15, 2018.
After reset, CS:IP = F000:FFF0 on the iAPX 286. This change was made to allow sufficient code space to enter protected mode without reloading CS.
- ↑ "80386 Programmer's Reference Manual" (PDF). Intel. 1990. Section 10.1 Processor State After Reset, pages 10-1 - 10.3.
- ↑ "80386 Programmer's Reference Manual" (PDF). Intel. 1990. Section 10.2.3 First Instruction, p. 10-4. Retrieved November 3, 2013.
Execution begins with the instruction addressed by the initial contents of the CS and IP registers. To allow the initialization software to be placed in a ROM at the top of the address space, the high 12 bits of addresses issued for the code segment are set, until the first instruction which loads the CS register, such as a far jump or call. As a result, instruction fetching begins from address 0FFFFFFF0H.
- ↑ "Intel® 64 and IA-32 Architectures Software Developer's Manual" (PDF). Intel. May 2012. Section 9.1.4 First Instruction Executed, p. 2611. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-08-08. Retrieved August 23, 2012.
The first instruction that is fetched and executed following a hardware reset is located at physical address FFFFFFF0h. This address is 16 bytes below the processor's uppermost physical address. The EPROM containing the software-initialization code must be located at this address.
- ↑ "5.9.1. Vector Table and Reset". Cortex-M3 Technical Reference Manual. Retrieved 2017-11-10.
- ↑ "Table 4-11 AArch64 reset registers". CortexARM Cortex-A72 MPCore Processor Technical Reference Manual r0p3. Retrieved 2024-01-30.
- ↑ "Documentation – Arm Developer". developer.arm.com. Retrieved 2024-06-21.
- ↑ "Boot sequence for an ARM based embedded system -2 - DM". www.embeddedrelated.com. Retrieved 2017-11-10.
- ↑ "MIPS32 Architecture For Programmers; Vol III: The MIPS32 Privileged Resource Architecture" (PDF). MIPS Technologies.
- ↑ Noergaard, Tammy (2005-02-28). Embedded Systems Architecture: A Comprehensive Guide for Engineers and Programmers. Elsevier. ISBN 9780080491240.
- ↑ "MIPS32 M4K Processor Core Software User's Manual" (PDF). cdn2.imgtec.com. August 29, 2008. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-08-26.
- ↑ The SPARC Architecture Manual, Version 8. SPARC International. p. 75.
- ↑ The SPARC Architecture Manual, Version 9. SPARC International. pp. 109–112.
- ↑ Labrosse, Jean J. (2008). Embedded Software. Newnes. ISBN 9780750685832.