Roman military tombstones

Last updated

The archaeology of death in the Roman period provides great detail into the lives and practices of the Imperial Roman army.

Contents

Tombstone form

The most familiar form of commemoration in death is the standing stone stelae; stone slabs taller than they are wide upon which they are inscribed with simple commemorative epitaphs. This may simply include a bordered written inscription, or one with added iconography of the deceased.

Military tombstones are most commonly from the 1st and 2nd centuries AD; the pre-Marian army used soldiers for specific campaigning periods; such soldiers would return to civilian life after serving in Rome's conflicts. The longer terms of military service instituted in the late 1st century BC provide more numerous examples.

Epigraphic style

A copy of a Roman tombstone found in Chester (Deva Victrix) depicting Caecilius Avitus, an optio in the Legio XX Valeria Victrix Grosvenor Museums - Grabstein 7a Optio.jpg
A copy of a Roman tombstone found in Chester ( Deva Victrix ) depicting Caecilius Avitus, an optio in the Legio XX Valeria Victrix

The Latin inscriptions on such tombstones can provide details on several aspects of life in the Roman army including:

Age - Through the Latin 'ANNORUM', an age at death is often provided like in modern headstones. Of a sample of 531 tombstones from the Roman period [1] it was found that a trend exists whereby the age at death is rounded to the nearest five or ten, but this is not a uniform pattern.

Enlistment- Vegetius [2] argues that enlistment occurs upon entering puberty, but Scheidel's [1] sample discovered that around 50% of the tombstones showed enlistment occurring between ages 17 and 20, with an increase to 80% if ages 17 to 24 are included. There are also five examples of enlistment between ages 33 to 36 and one example at age 13.

Rank - Rank is an important factor in the Roman Army and one that is clearly visible in death. Examples exist showing the rank and file of the legions and auxiliary units, but also of centurions, standard-bearers, bene ficarii – units attached to the legatus's bodyguard and armourers,

One of the most famous tombstones from the Roman world is one of a centurion named Marcus Caelius. The inscription reads thus:

M[arco] CAELIO T[iti] F[ilio] LEM[onia tribv] BON[onia] I O[rdinis] LEG[ionis] XIIX ANN[orvm] LIIIS OCCIDIT BELLO VARIANO OSSA INFERRE LICEBIT P[vblivs] CAELIVS T[iti] F[ilivs] LEM[onia tribv] FRATER FECIT

To Marcus Caelius, son of Titus, of the Lemonian district, from

Bologna, first centurion of the eighteenth legion. 53½ years old. He fell in the Varian War. His bones may be interred here. Publius Caelius, son of Titus, of the Lemonian district, his brother, erected (this monument).

Iconographic style

The visual representation above the Latin inscription is important indeed as it provides an image of how the deceased has been immortalised in death. Several tombstones of auxiliary cavalrymen depict them in a killing-scene, riding high over a defeated (usually Gallic styled) foe. A 2007 discovery at Lancaster, Lancashire, UK [3] depicts a cavalryman named Insus stationed in Britain. Instead of a relief showing him mid-kill, Insus rides tall over a prone enemy whilst holding the severed head of his victim in a victorious pose.

The tombstone of Marcus Caelius, at Xanten, in Germany, is a particularly well-known and ornate example of a legionary tombstone. He is shown in a deep-set relief, flanked by busts of his freedmen, beneath a classical colonnade and pediment. He holds the vitis, the cane held by a centurion, and wears a crown of oak – a symbol that he had saved another's life at some point.

Purpose

Clearly the use of tombstones is held in the same regards as it is today – the living fulfilling an obligation of respect to the deceased. Hope [4] argues that these funerary monuments do not necessarily reflect the realities of military society but the rhetoric of language and image through which society was constructed. The lack of tombstone evidence in Britain, when compared to Germany for example, reveals that other methods of commemoration must have been used; such as perishable wooden tombstones that would not survive, or un-marked grave sites.

See also

Related Research Articles

Epitaph Inscription on a tombstone

An epitaph is a short text honoring a deceased person. Strictly speaking, it refers to text that is inscribed on a tombstone or plaque, but it may also be used in a figurative sense. Some epitaphs are specified by the person themselves before their death, while others are chosen by those responsible for the burial. An epitaph may be written in prose or in poem verse; poets have been known to compose their own epitaphs prior to their death.

Headstone Stele or marker, usually stone, that is placed over a grave

A headstone, tombstone, or gravestone is a stele or marker, usually stone, that is placed over a grave. It is traditional for burials in the Christian, Jewish, and Muslim religions, among others. In most cases, it has the deceased's name, date of birth, and date of death inscribed on it, along with a personal message, or prayer, but may contain pieces of funerary art, especially details in stone relief. In many parts of Europe, insetting a photograph of the deceased in a frame is very common.

The gens Artoria was a minor plebeian family at ancient Rome. Few members of this gens are mentioned in history, but a number are known from inscriptions. Under the later Empire at least some of them were of senatorial rank.

Armilla (military decoration)

An armilla was an armband awarded as a military decoration to soldiers of ancient Rome for conspicuous gallantry. Legionary (citizen) soldiers and non-commissioned officers below the rank of centurion were eligible for this award, but non-citizen soldiers were not. Unlike legionaries, auxiliary common soldiers did not receive individual decorations, though auxiliary officers did. However, a whole auxiliary regiment could be honoured by a title as an equivalent award, which in this case would be armillata, or be granted Roman citizenship en masse as a reward. This entitled an auxiliary regiment to add the appellation civium Romanorum to its list of honours.

The gens Afrania was a plebeian family at Rome, which is first mentioned in the second century BC. The first member of this gens to achieve prominence was Gaius Afranius Stellio, who became praetor in 185 BC.

The gens Accia was a Roman family during the late Republic. The gens is known primarily from two individuals, Lucius Accius, a tragic poet of the second century BC, and Titus Accius, best known for his prosecution of Aulus Cluentius Habitus in Cicero's oration Pro Cluentio. Other Accii are known from inscriptions.

Marcus Caelius Roman soldier

Marcus Caelius was the senior centurion in XVIII Roman Legion who was killed in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest. He is known from his cenotaph, which was discovered in 1620 in Birten, Germany. Caelius is depicted wearing his military uniform, with phalerae, armillae, and a corona civica, while in his right hand, he holds a vitis. On either side of his image are his freedmen, Privatus and Thiaminus.

Roman funerary art Historical Roman art genre

Roman funerary art changed throughout the course of the Roman Republic and the Empire and comprised many different forms. There were two main burial practices used by the Romans throughout history, one being cremation, another inhumation. The vessels used for these practices include sarcophagi, ash chests, urns, and altars. In addition to these, mausoleums, stelae, and other monuments were also used to commemorate the dead. The method by which Romans were memorialized was determined by social class, religion, and other factors. While monuments to the dead were constructed within Roman cities, the remains themselves were interred outside the cities.

Mutia gens

The gens Mutia was an obscure plebeian family at Rome. None of its members is known to have held any magistracy, but many are known from inscriptions, including a large number of freedmen.

The gens Ofania was a minor plebeian family at Rome. Members of this gens known almost entirely from inscriptions.

The gens Orbia was a minor plebeian family at Rome. No members of this gens are known to have held any magistracies, but many of them are known from inscriptions. The most illustrious of the family may have been the jurist Publius Orbius, a contemporary of Cicero.

The gens Orfia was a minor plebeian family at Rome. Few members of this gens are mentioned by ancient writers, but others are known from inscriptions. The best-known may be Marcus Orfius, a military tribune who served under the command of Caesar.

The gens Peducaea, occasionally written Paeducaea or Peducea, was a plebeian family at ancient Rome. Members of this gens occur in history from the end of the second century BC, and from then to the time of Antoninus Pius, they steadily increased in prominence. The first of the Peducaii to obtain the consulship was Titus Peducaeus in 35 BC.

The gens Percennia was a plebeian family at ancient Rome. Members of this gens first appear in history in the early years of the Empire, and several of them were of senatorial rank, although it is not known what magistracies they held. The most famous of the family may have been the Percennius who led a mutiny of the Pannonian legions in AD 14, which Drusus was obliged to put down.

The gens Pilia was an obscure plebeian family at ancient Rome. None of the Pilii attained any of the higher magistracies of the Roman state, and members of this gens are known primarily through the writings of Cicero, who was acquainted with a family of this name; but many others are known from inscriptions.

The gens Pinnia was an obscure plebeian family at ancient Rome. Few members of this gens are mentioned in history, and few of them attained any of the higher offices of the Roman state, although a few became local governors, and at least one, Lucius Pinnius Porphyrio, held the quaestorship. Many others are known from inscriptions.

The gens Pollia was a minor plebeian family at ancient Rome. The gens must have been very old, as one of the original Servian tribes was named after it, suggesting that the Pollii were important landowners during the Roman monarchy. However, few Pollii are mentioned in history, and none of them attained any of the higher offices of the Roman state. A number of Pollii are known from inscriptions.

The gens Racilia was a minor plebeian family at ancient Rome. Members of this gens are mentioned as early as the fifth century BC, but few of them achieved any prominence in the Roman state.

The gens Tatia was a minor plebeian family at ancient Rome. This gens is perhaps best known from the legendary figure of Titus Tatius, a Sabine king who fought against Romulus, and who subsequently became joint ruler of Rome. None of the Tatii held any of the higher magistracies of the Roman Republic, but a number are known from inscriptions.

The gens Tituria was an obscure plebeian family at ancient Rome. Few members of this gens appear in history, of whom the most famous is Quintus Titurius Sabinus, one of Caesar's legates during the Gallic Wars. Other Titurii are known from inscriptions.

References

  1. 1 2 Schiedel, W., 1996, "Measuring Sex, Age and Death in the Roman Empire", Journal of Roman Archaeology supplementary series no. 21, Chapter 3
  2. ↑ Vegetius, Epitome of Military Science 1.5
  3. ↑ Bull, S., 2007,Triumphant Rider: The Lancaster Roman Cavalry Tombstone, Lancaster: Lancashire Museums
  4. ↑ Hope, V., 2000, "Inscription and Sculpture: the Construction of Identity in the Military Tombstones of Roman Mainz", in Oliver, G.J. (ed.), The Epigraphy of Death: Studies in the History and Society of Greece and Rome, Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, pp155-186
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.