Rural-Urban gradient

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The Rural-Urban gradient is a gradient that is used to describe how Anthropocene effects affect their surroundings and how they compare to areas less affected by Anthropocene effects. Effects such as but, not limited to disturbance, change in biota, pollution, and landscape modification. [1] Mainly used in the context of ecosystem services, it has also been used to describe biodiversity along the gradient, [2] as well as behavioral change. [3]

Contents

Research

Individual research on the topic is often done by taking multiple samples along a transect from a city center and working outwards. [1] At first, research mainly focused on characteristics involved in land cover structures, the biota of the rural-urban areas and socio-economic structures. However, nowadays research also focuses on many ecosystem services, [4] as well as on biodiversity and evolution.

Ecosystem services

In ecosystem services, rural-urban gradients have shown Anthropocene effects affect their surroundings in multiple ways. [5] For example, research has shown that energy consumption increases with increases population and industrialization. [5] As of now, there is no clear pattern on how ecosystem services are affected by the rural-urban gradient, as it still differs widely between different cities and is dependent on other factors. [6]

Biodiversity

In biodiversity, the rural-urban gradient is sometimes also used to describe the species richness distribution along the gradient. It is known that for most groups of organisms when urbanization is high, species richness decreases. [7] However, when urbanization is at a low to medium level, species richness tends to increase. [7] These are mostly suburban, low-density housing and there are several reasons why the species richness tends to be higher there. For instance, the large presence of private gardens. In these gardens, a great floral diversity exists, largely mostly existing of non-native plants. This, combined with the combined size of all the gardens, create a large, diverse floral area, attracting more fauna than the more urbanized cores of cities. [8] In return, this also creates a greater species richness than both the more urbanized city cores, as well as the rural lands further away from the city. [9]

Another factor of biodiversity on the rural-urban gradient is the effect of invasive and introduced species. With an increase in human activity comes a greater introduction of non-native species. [10] This, combined with research that traffic corridors help to disperse non-native species, [11] make that non-native species also follow a rural-urban gradient, with the highest concentration in the cities and lower concentrations as you go outwards from the city.

In evolution

The rural-urban gradient is also studied in the light of evolution. Research on the common sparrow (Passer domesticus) has shown that populations along a rural-urban gradient can also genetically differentiate from one another over relatively small distances. [12] In contrast, research on the black-headed gull (Chroicocephalus ridibundus) has shown that this genetic differentiation does not always appear along a rural-urban gradient, as the research did not show any significant difference between the genetic make-up of urban and rural populations. [13]

Behavior

In behavioral biology, the rural-urban gradient has mainly been studied in the context of songbirds. Research on European blackbirds (Turdus merula) has shown that there is a significant variation of songs of the European blackbird along a rural-urban gradient. This is probably to avoid the song from being masked by the background noises. However, since the different populations are not isolated, it is unclear whether this is an evolutionary change or part of behavioral plasticity. [14]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Urbanization</span> Process of population movement to cities

Urbanization is the population shift from rural to urban areas, the corresponding decrease in the proportion of people living in rural areas, and the ways in which societies adapt to this change. It can also mean population growth in urban areas instead of rural ones. It is predominantly the process by which towns and cities are formed and become larger as more people begin living and working in central areas.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Human ecology</span> Study of the relationship between humans and their natural, social, and built environments

Human ecology is an interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary study of the relationship between humans and their natural, social, and built environments. The philosophy and study of human ecology has a diffuse history with advancements in ecology, geography, sociology, psychology, anthropology, zoology, epidemiology, public health, and home economics, among others.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Landscape ecology</span> Science of relationships between ecological processes in the environment and particular ecosystems

Landscape ecology is the science of studying and improving relationships between ecological processes in the environment and particular ecosystems. This is done within a variety of landscape scales, development spatial patterns, and organizational levels of research and policy. Concisely, landscape ecology can be described as the science of "landscape diversity" as the synergetic result of biodiversity and geodiversity.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Urban ecology</span> Scientific study of living organisms

Urban ecology is the scientific study of the relation of living organisms with each other and their surroundings in an urban environment. An urban environment refers to environments dominated by high-density residential and commercial buildings, paved surfaces, and other urban-related factors that create a unique landscape. The goal of urban ecology is to achieve a balance between human culture and the natural environment.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Biological dispersal</span> Movement of individuals from their birth site to a breeding site

Biological dispersal refers to both the movement of individuals from their birth site to their breeding site, as well as the movement from one breeding site to another . Dispersal is also used to describe the movement of propagules such as seeds and spores. Technically, dispersal is defined as any movement that has the potential to lead to gene flow. The act of dispersal involves three phases: departure, transfer, settlement and there are different fitness costs and benefits associated with each of these phases. Through simply moving from one habitat patch to another, the dispersal of an individual has consequences not only for individual fitness, but also for population dynamics, population genetics, and species distribution. Understanding dispersal and the consequences both for evolutionary strategies at a species level, and for processes at an ecosystem level, requires understanding on the type of dispersal, the dispersal range of a given species, and the dispersal mechanisms involved. Biological dispersal can be correlated to population density. The range of variations of a species' location determines expansion range.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ecosystem engineer</span> Ecological niche

An ecosystem engineer is any species that creates, significantly modifies, maintains or destroys a habitat. These organisms can have a large impact on species richness and landscape-level heterogeneity of an area. As a result, ecosystem engineers are important for maintaining the health and stability of the environment they are living in. Since all organisms impact the environment they live in one way or another, it has been proposed that the term "ecosystem engineers" be used only for keystone species whose behavior very strongly affects other organisms.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Habitat fragmentation</span> Discontinuities in an organisms environment causing population fragmentation.

Habitat fragmentation describes the emergence of discontinuities (fragmentation) in an organism's preferred environment (habitat), causing population fragmentation and ecosystem decay. Causes of habitat fragmentation include geological processes that slowly alter the layout of the physical environment, and human activity such as land conversion, which can alter the environment much faster and causes the extinction of many species. More specifically, habitat fragmentation is a process by which large and contiguous habitats get divided into smaller, isolated patches of habitats.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Reconciliation ecology</span> Study of maintaining biodiversity in human-dominated ecosystems

Reconciliation ecology is the branch of ecology which studies ways to encourage biodiversity in the human-dominated ecosystems of the anthropocene era. Michael Rosenzweig first articulated the concept in his book Win-Win Ecology, based on the theory that there is not enough area for all of earth's biodiversity to be saved within designated nature preserves. Therefore, humans should increase biodiversity in human-dominated landscapes. By managing for biodiversity in ways that do not decrease human utility of the system, it is a "win-win" situation for both human use and native biodiversity. The science is based in the ecological foundation of human land-use trends and species-area relationships. It has many benefits beyond protection of biodiversity, and there are numerous examples of it around the globe. Aspects of reconciliation ecology can already be found in management legislation, but there are challenges in both public acceptance and ecological success of reconciliation attempts.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Urban prairie</span> Vacant urban land reverted to green space

Urban prairie is a term to describe vacant urban land that has reverted to green space. The definition of an urban prairie, also known as an urban grassland, can vary across countries and disciplines, but at its broadest encompasses meadows, lawns, and gardens, as well as public and private parks, vacant land, remnants of rural landscapes, and areas along transportation corridors.If previously developed, structures occupying the urban lots have been demolished, leaving patchy areas of green space that are usually untended and unmanaged, forming an involuntary park. Spaces can also be intentionally created to facilitate amenities, such as green belts, community gardens and wildlife reserve habitats.Urban brownfields are contaminated grasslands that also fall under the urban grassland umbrella. Urban greenspaces are a larger category that include urban grasslands in addition to other spaces.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">River ecosystem</span> Type of aquatic ecosystem with flowing freshwater

River ecosystems are flowing waters that drain the landscape, and include the biotic (living) interactions amongst plants, animals and micro-organisms, as well as abiotic (nonliving) physical and chemical interactions of its many parts. River ecosystems are part of larger watershed networks or catchments, where smaller headwater streams drain into mid-size streams, which progressively drain into larger river networks. The major zones in river ecosystems are determined by the river bed's gradient or by the velocity of the current. Faster moving turbulent water typically contains greater concentrations of dissolved oxygen, which supports greater biodiversity than the slow-moving water of pools. These distinctions form the basis for the division of rivers into upland and lowland rivers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Latitudinal gradients in species diversity</span> Global increase in species richness from polar regions to tropics

Species richness, or biodiversity, increases from the poles to the tropics for a wide variety of terrestrial and marine organisms, often referred to as the latitudinal diversity gradient. The latitudinal diversity gradient is one of the most widely recognized patterns in ecology. It has been observed to varying degrees in Earth's past. A parallel trend has been found with elevation, though this is less well-studied.

Soil ecology is the study of the interactions among soil organisms, and between biotic and abiotic aspects of the soil environment. It is particularly concerned with the cycling of nutrients, formation and stabilization of the pore structure, the spread and vitality of pathogens, and the biodiversity of this rich biological community.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Urban ecosystem</span> Structure of civilization

In ecology, urban ecosystems are considered a ecosystem functional group within the intensive land-use biome. They are structurally complex ecosystems with highly heterogeneous and dynamic spatial structure that is created and maintained by humans. They include cities, smaller settlements and industrial areas, that are made up of diverse patch types. Urban ecosystems rely on large subsidies of imported water, nutrients, food and other resources. Compared to other natural and artificial ecosystems human population density is high, and their interaction with the different patch types produces emergent properties and complex feedbacks among ecosystem components.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Urban wildlife</span> Wildlife that can live or thrive in urban environments

Urban wildlife is wildlife that can live or thrive in urban/suburban environments or around densely populated human settlements such as townships.

Tropical ecology is the study of the relationships between the biotic and abiotic components of the tropics, or the area of the Earth that lies between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. The tropical climate experiences hot, humid weather and rainfall year-round. While many might associate the region solely with the rainforests, the tropics are home to a wide variety of ecosystems that boast a great wealth of biodiversity, from exotic animal species to seldom-found flora. Tropical ecology began with the work of early English naturalists and eventually saw the establishment of research stations throughout the tropics devoted to exploring and documenting these exotic landscapes. The burgeoning ecological study of the tropics has led to increased conservation education and programs devoted to the climate.

Novel ecosystems are human-built, modified, or engineered niches of the Anthropocene. They exist in places that have been altered in structure and function by human agency. Novel ecosystems are part of the human environment and niche, they lack natural analogs, and they have extended an influence that has converted more than three-quarters of wild Earth. These anthropogenic biomes include technoecosystems that are fuelled by powerful energy sources including ecosystems populated with technodiversity, such as roads and unique combinations of soils called technosols. Vegetation associations on old buildings or along field boundary stone walls in old agricultural landscapes are examples of sites where research into novel ecosystem ecology is developing.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Peri-urban agriculture</span> Aspect of agriculture

Peri-urban regions can be defined as 'superficial' rural areas that are within the orbit of immediate urban hubs, in other words, areas that surround large population centers. These regions can also be referred to as 'exurban areas', 'the rural-urban fringe' or the 'fringe', they include the transition zones between the outer limits of the commuter belt and the edge of newly constructed suburban areas.

Disease ecology is a sub-discipline of ecology concerned with the mechanisms, patterns, and effects of host-pathogen interactions, particularly those of infectious diseases. For example, it examines how parasites spread through and influence wildlife populations and communities. By studying the flow of diseases within the natural environment, scientists seek to better understand how changes within our environment can shape how pathogens, and other diseases, travel. Therefore, diseases ecology seeks to understand the links between ecological interactions and disease evolution. New emerging and re-emerging infectious diseases are increasing at unprecedented rates which can have lasting impacts on public health, ecosystem health, and biodiversity.

Urban evolution refers to the heritable genetic changes of populations in response to urban development and anthropogenic activities in urban areas. Urban evolution can be caused by mutation, genetic drift, gene flow, or evolution by natural selection. Biologists have observed evolutionary change in numerous species compared to their rural counterparts on a relatively short timescale.

Xuemei Bai (白雪梅) is a professor for Urban Environment and Human Ecology at the Australian National University. She was the winner of the 2018 Volvo Environmental Prize, and is an elected fellow of the Academy of the Social Sciences in Australia.

References

  1. 1 2 McDonnell, M. J.; Pickett, S. T. A. (1990). "Ecosystem Structure and Function along Urban-Rural Gradients: An Unexploited Opportunity for Ecology". Ecology. 71 (4): 1232–1237. Bibcode:1990Ecol...71.1232M. doi:10.2307/1938259. ISSN   1939-9170. JSTOR   1938259.
  2. ↑ McDonnell, Mark J.; Hahs, Amy K. (2008-12-01). "The use of gradient analysis studies in advancing our understanding of the ecology of urbanizing landscapes: current status and future directions". Landscape Ecology. 23 (10): 1143–1155. Bibcode:2008LaEco..23.1143M. doi:10.1007/s10980-008-9253-4. ISSN   1572-9761. S2CID   21642974.
  3. ↑ Narango, Desirée L.; Rodewald, Amanda D. (2015-11-22). "Urban-associated drivers of song variation along a rural–urban gradient". Behavioral Ecology. 27 (2): 608–616. doi:10.1093/beheco/arv197. ISSN   1045-2249.
  4. ↑ Hou, Yin; Müller, Felix; Li, Bo; Kroll, Franziska (2015-02-28). "Urban-rural gradients of ecosystem services and the linkages with socioeconomics". Landscape Online. 39: 1–31. doi: 10.3097/LO.201539 . ISSN   1865-1542.
  5. 1 2 Kroll, Franziska; Müller, Felix; Haase, Dagmar; Fohrer, Nicola (2012-07-01). "Rural–urban gradient analysis of ecosystem services supply and demand dynamics". Land Use Policy. 29 (3): 521–535. doi:10.1016/j.landusepol.2011.07.008. ISSN   0264-8377.
  6. ↑ Larondelle, Neele; Haase, Dagmar (2013-06-01). "Urban ecosystem services assessment along a rural–urban gradient: A cross-analysis of European cities". Ecological Indicators. 29: 179–190. doi:10.1016/j.ecolind.2012.12.022. ISSN   1470-160X.
  7. 1 2 McKinney, Michael L. (2008-06-01). "Effects of urbanization on species richness: A review of plants and animals". Urban Ecosystems. 11 (2): 161–176. Bibcode:2008UrbEc..11..161M. doi:10.1007/s11252-007-0045-4. ISSN   1573-1642. S2CID   23353943.
  8. ↑ Radford, Kathleen Gail; James, Philip (2013-01-01). "Changes in the value of ecosystem services along a rural–urban gradient: A case study of Greater Manchester, UK". Landscape and Urban Planning. 109 (1): 117–127. doi:10.1016/j.landurbplan.2012.10.007. ISSN   0169-2046.
  9. ↑ Goddard, Mark A.; Dougill, Andrew J.; Benton, Tim G. (February 2010). "Scaling up from gardens: biodiversity conservation in urban environments". Trends in Ecology & Evolution. 25 (2): 90–98. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2009.07.016. hdl: 2027.42/144711 . ISSN   0169-5347. PMID   19758724.
  10. ↑ Aronson, Myla F. J.; Handel, Steven N.; La Puma, Inga P.; Clemants, Steven E. (2015-03-01). "Urbanization promotes non-native woody species and diverse plant assemblages in the New York metropolitan region". Urban Ecosystems. 18 (1): 31–45. Bibcode:2015UrbEc..18...31A. doi:10.1007/s11252-014-0382-z. ISSN   1573-1642. S2CID   255108298.
  11. ↑ Lippe, Moritz von der; Kowarik, Ingo (2008). "Do cities export biodiversity? Traffic as dispersal vector across urban–rural gradients". Diversity and Distributions. 14 (1): 18–25. Bibcode:2008DivDi..14...18V. doi:10.1111/j.1472-4642.2007.00401.x. ISSN   1472-4642. S2CID   23088179.
  12. ↑ Vangestel, Carl; Mergeay, Joachim; Dawson, Deborah A.; Vandomme, Viki; Lens, Luc (2011). "Spatial heterogeneity in genetic relatedness among house sparrows along an urban–rural gradient as revealed by individual-based analysis". Molecular Ecology. 20 (22): 4643–4653. Bibcode:2011MolEc..20.4643V. doi:10.1111/j.1365-294X.2011.05316.x. ISSN   1365-294X. PMID   22004175. S2CID   3088553.
  13. ↑ Indykiewicz, Piotr; Podlaszczuk, Patrycja; Janiszewska, Aleksandra; Minias, Piotr (2018). "Extensive gene flow along the urban–rural gradient in a migratory colonial bird". Journal of Avian Biology. 49 (6). doi:10.1111/jav.01723. ISSN   1600-048X. S2CID   89794781.
  14. ↑ Mendes, Solange; Colino-Rabanal, Víctor J.; Peris, Salvador J. (2011-01-30). "Bird song variations along an urban gradient: The case of the European blackbird (Turdus merula)". Landscape and Urban Planning. 99 (1): 51–57. doi:10.1016/j.landurbplan.2010.08.013. ISSN   0169-2046.
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