Siege of Port Royal (1707)

Last updated

Siege of Port Royal
Part of Queen Anne's War
BayOfMaine1713.jpg
Annotated detail from a 1713 map showing eastern New England and southern Nova Scotia/Acadia. Port Royal is at A, Boston at B, and Casco Bay at C.
Datefirst siege: 6–17 June 1707
second siege: 22 August – 1 September 1707
Location
Port Royal, Acadia (present-day Annapolis Royal, Nova Scotia)
Result Acadian and Wabanaki victory
Belligerents
Union flag 1606 (Kings Colors).svg  Great Britain

Royal Standard of the King of France.svg  France

  Wabanaki Confederacy

Acadian militia

Mi'kmaq militia [1]
Commanders and leaders
John March
Francis Wainwright
Captain Charles Stuckley, RN
Winthrop Hilton
Cyprian Southack [2] 		Daniel d'Auger de Subercase
Bernard-Anselme d'Abbadie de Saint-Castin
Pierre Morpain
Pierre Maisonnat dit Baptiste
Antoine Gaulin [3]
Strength
1,150 provincial soldiers (first siege) [4]
850 provincial soldiers (second siege) [5] 		160 troupes de la marine
60 Acadian militia
100 Wabanaki [6]
Casualties and losses
16 killed; 16 wounded; [7] reports vary widely [8] At least 5 killed; 20 wounded [9] reports vary widely [8]

The siege of Port Royal in 1707 included two separate attempts by English colonists from New England to conquer Acadia (roughly the present-day Canadian provinces of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick) by capturing its capital Port Royal (now Annapolis Royal) during Queen Anne's War. Both attempts were made by colonial militia, and were led by men inexperienced in siege warfare. Led by Acadian Governor Daniel d'Auger de Subercase, the French troops at Port Royal easily withstood both attempts, assisted by irregular Acadians and the Wabanaki Confederacy outside the fort.

Contents

The first siege began on June 6, 1707, and lasted 11 days. The English colonel, John March, was able to establish positions near Port Royal's fort, but his engineer claimed the necessary cannons could not be landed, and the force withdrew amid disagreements in the war council. The second siege began August 22, and was never able to establish secure camps, owing to spirited defensive sorties organized by Acadian Governor Daniel d'Auger de Subercase.

The siege attempts were viewed as a debacle in Boston, and the expedition's leaders were jeered upon their return. Port Royal was captured in 1710 by a larger force that included British Army troops; that capture marked the end of French rule in peninsular Acadia.

Background

Port Royal was the capital of the French colony of Acadia almost since the French first began settling the area in 1604. It consequently became a focal point for conflict between English and French colonists in the next century. It was destroyed in 1613 by English raiders led by Samuel Argall, but eventually rebuilt. [10] In 1690 it was captured by forces from the Province of Massachusetts Bay, although it was restored to France by the Treaty of Ryswick. [11]

French preparations

With the outbreak of the War of the Spanish Succession in 1702, colonists on both sides again prepared for conflict. Acadia's governor, Jacques-François de Monbeton de Brouillan, had, in anticipation of war, already begun construction of a stone and earth fort in 1701, which was largely completed by 1704. [11] Following a French raid on Deerfield on the Massachusetts frontier in February 1704, the English in Boston organized a raid against Acadia the following May. Led by Benjamin Church, they raided Grand Pré and other Acadian communities. [12] English and French accounts differ on whether Church's expedition mounted an attack on Port Royal. Church's account indicates that they anchored in the harbour and considered making an attack, but ultimately decided against the idea; French accounts claim that a minor attack was made. [13]

Map of Port Royal, made in 1702 PortRoyalAcadia1702.jpg
Map of Port Royal, made in 1702

When Daniel d'Auger de Subercase became governor of Acadia in 1706, he went on the offensive, encouraging Indian raids against English targets in New England. He also encouraged privateering from Port Royal against English colonial shipping. The privateers were highly effective; the English fishing fleet on the Grand Banks was reduced by 80 percent between 1702 and 1707, and some English coastal communities were raided. [14]

New England preparations

English merchants in Boston had long traded with Port Royal, and some of this activity had continued even after the war began. [15] Some of these merchants, notably Samuel Vetch, were closely associated with Massachusetts Bay's Governor Joseph Dudley, and by 1706 outrage began growing in the colonial assembly over the matter. Vetch chose to deal with these allegations by going to London to press a case for a military expedition against New France, while Dudley, who had previously requested such support without response, chose to demonstrate his anti-French sentiment by organizing an expedition against Port Royal using mostly colonial resources. [16] In March 1707 he revived an idea he had first developed in 1702 that called for provincial militia to man an expedition supported by resources of the Royal Navy that were locally available. [17] His proposal was approved by the assembly on 21 March. Colonial popular opinion was divided on the need for the expedition: some ministers argued in its favour from the pulpit, while Cotton Mather "Pray'd God not to carry his people hence." [18]

Massachusetts raised two full regiments, totalling nearly 1,000 men; New Hampshire provided 60 men, Rhode Island provided 80, and a company of Indians from Cape Cod was also recruited. [4] [19] Recruiting was difficult in Massachusetts due to the lack of enthusiasm for the endeavour, and authorities were forced to draft men to fill the ranks. [20] Connecticut was also asked to contribute to the expedition, but declined, citing bad feeling over the return of Port Royal by treaty after its capture in 1690. [21] The force, which was placed under the command of Massachusetts Colonel John March, totalled 1,150 soldiers and 450 sailors, and was carried by a fleet of 24 ships, including the 50 gun man of war Deptford under the command of Captain Charles Stuckley, and the 24 gun colonial Province Galley of Cyprian Southack. [4] [20] (March took a former prisoner of the Maliseet, John Gyles as his translator.) [22]

First siege

The English fleet arrived outside the channel of the Port Royal harbour on June 6, and troops were landed the next day. Governor Subercase's defence force at the time consisted of 100 troupes de la marine that had fortuitously been reinforced by the recent arrival of another 60 who were due to take command of a recently built frigate. Just hours before the English arrival he had also welcomed about 100 Abenaki Indians led by the young Bernard-Anselme d'Abbadie de Saint-Castin. As soon as the English ships were spotted, Subercase also called out the local militia, mustering about 60 men. [6]

Massachusetts Bay Governor Joseph Dudley organized the expedition against Port Royal. Joseph Dudley attributed to Peter Lely.jpg
Massachusetts Bay Governor Joseph Dudley organized the expedition against Port Royal.

Colonel March landed with about 700 men to the north of the fort, and another 300 to its south under the command of Colonel Samuel Appleton, with the goal of establishing a siege line around the fort. [6] Both forces were landed too far from the fort and spent the rest of the day marching toward it. Subercase sent a small force to the south on the morning of the 8th, who were driven back toward the fort by Appleton. [23] Subercase himself led a larger contingent to the north, where he established an ambush at a river March's force would have to cross. After a sharp battle in which Subercase's horse was shot out from under him, the defenders were pushed back into the fort. [24]

The New Englanders established camps about 1.5 miles (2.4 km) from the fort. Subercase sent parties out of the fort to harass English foraging parties, giving rise to rumors that additional militia forces were en route from northern Acadia. The English managed to advance their lines closer to the fort, but their engineer, Colonel John Redknap, did not believe the expedition's heavy cannons could be landed safely, because they "must pass within command of the fort". [5] This led to disagreements between March, Redknap, and Stuckley which spelled the end of the expedition. After a final assault on June 16, which French accounts describe as a failed attempt to take the fort, and English accounts say was merely an attempt to destroy some buildings outside the fort, the expedition embarked on its ships and sailed off on the 17th. March directed the fleet to sail for Casco Bay (near present-day Portland, Maine). [25] [26]

Interlude

Daniel d'Auger de Subercase led the defense of Port Royal. Daniel d'Auger de Subercase.jpg
Daniel d'Auger de Subercase led the defense of Port Royal.

From Casco Bay Colonel March sent a letter to Boston, in which he laid the blame for the expedition's failure on Stuckley and Redknap. [25] News of the failure preceded his messengers, and they were met upon their arrival by a jeering crowd of women and children. [27] Colonel Redknap, one of the messengers, was able to convince Governor Dudley that he had acted within his orders, and blame was generally attached to March for the failure. [28] Dudley issued orders to March that the fleet should stay put, with all men remaining aboard under penalty of death, while his council considered the next step. Dudley eventually sent reinforcements and a three-man commission (including two militia colonels and John Leverett, a lawyer with no military experience) to oversee affairs, and ordered the expedition to make a second attack. [27] Despite the orders, desertion from the fleet was high, and the force was reduced to about 850 when it sailed for Port Royal in late August. Colonel March resigned the expedition command and was replaced by Colonel Francis Wainwright. [27]

Governor Subercase was forewarned of the second attempt, and had erected additional defenses to impede the attackers' approaches. [27] He was also reinforced by the fortuitous arrival of the Intrepide, a French frigate under the command of Pierre Morpain. [29] His crew was added to the defences, and captured prize ships he brought with him provided needed provisions for the fort. [27]

Second siege

Province Galley (ship), Commander Cyprian Southack Province Galley - Cyprian Southack.png
Province Galley (ship), Commander Cyprian Southack

The English fleet arrived near Port Royal on August 21, and Wainwright landed his troops about 2 miles (3.2 km) below (south of) the fort the next day and marched them to a position about 1 mile (1.6 km) north of the fort. [27] This area, where March had previously camped, was one of the areas near which Subercase had thrown up additional defensive earthworks. [30] On August 23 Wainwright sent a detachment of 300 to clear a path for the heavy cannon; this attempt was repulsed by forces sent out by Subercase to harass them. Using guerrilla-style tactics and fire from the fort's cannons, they forced the English to retreat to their camp. [29] This defeat apparently had a significant effect on English morale; Wainwright wrote that his camp was "surrounded with enemies and judging it unsafe to proceed on any service without a company of at least one hundred men." [29] In what was probably the most serious clash, an English party cutting brush was ambushed by a French and Indian force, and nine of the party were killed. The situation got so bad in the English camp that on the 27th they withdrew to a camp protected by their ships' guns. [31] The camp was not properly fortified, and the Englishmen were constantly subjected to sniping and attacks from swarming French and Indians. [32] When Wainwright made a second landing at another point on August 31, Subercase himself led 120 soldiers out of the fort. About 70 men engaged the New Englanders in hand-to-hand combat, which was fought with axes and musket butts. Saint-Castin and almost 20 of his men were wounded while five others were killed. [9] The next day, September 1, the English reembarked on their ships, and sailed back to Boston. [32] The French in their reports claimed to have killed as many as 200 men, but English sources claim only about 16 killed and 16 wounded in the siege. [9] [33]

Aftermath

The expedition's return to Boston was also met with jeers. Dudley's commissioners were sarcastically called "the three Port Royal worthies" and "the three champions". [34] Dudley's reports of the affair minimized its failings, pointing out that many plantations around Port Royal had been destroyed during the two sieges. [35] Dudley also refused to make inquiries into the expedition's failure, fearing the blame would be placed on him. [36]

Subercase, concerned that the British might return the following year, worked to strengthen the fortifications at Port Royal. He also built a small warship to assist in the colony's defenses, and convinced Morpain to raid New England shipping. [37] The privateer was so successful that by the end of 1708 Port Royal was overcrowded with prisoners from the captured prizes. [38]

None of this helped save Port Royal from the next attack, since France failed to send any significant support, while the British mobilized larger and better-organized forces. Samuel Vetch, with support from Dudley, Boston merchants, and the New England fishing community, successfully lobbied Queen Anne for military support for an expedition to conquer all of New France in 1709. [39] [40] This prompted the colonists to mobilize in the expectation that troops would arrive from England; their efforts were aborted when the promised military support failed to materialize. Vetch and Francis Nicholson returned to England in its aftermath, and again secured promises of military support for an attempt on Port Royal in 1710. [41] In the summer of 1710, a fleet arrived in Boston carrying 400 marines. [42] Augmented by colonial regiments, this force captured Port Royal after a third siege in 1710. [43]

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Penhallow, p.51
  2. ↑ "Genealogy of Patty Rose".
  3. ↑ Lee, David (1979) [1969]. "Gaulin, Antoine". In Hayne, David (ed.). Dictionary of Canadian Biography . Vol. II (1701–1740) (online ed.). University of Toronto Press.
  4. 1 2 3 Drake, p. 227
  5. 1 2 Griffiths (2005), p. 216.
  6. 1 2 3 Griffiths (2005), p. 215.
  7. ↑ Winthrop Hilton's Journal
  8. 1 2 Griffiths (2005), pp. 216–217.
  9. 1 2 3 Dunn, p. 74
  10. ↑ Macvicar, J; Graham, R M (1973-04-07). "Two unusual cases of secondary postpartum haemorrhage". BMJ. 2 (5857): 29–29. doi: 10.1136/bmj.2.5857.29 . ISSN   0959-8138. PMC   1589040 .
  11. 1 2 Baudry, René (1979) [1969]. "Monbeton de Brouillan, Jacques-François de". In Hayne, David (ed.). Dictionary of Canadian Biography . Vol. II (1701–1740) (online ed.). University of Toronto Press.
  12. ↑ Drake, pp. 193–202
  13. ↑ Drake, p. 202
  14. ↑ Faragher, p. 113
  15. ↑ Peckham, p. 66
  16. ↑ Rawlyk, p. 100
  17. ↑ Rawlyk, pp. 93, 100
  18. ↑ Rawlyk, p. 101
  19. ↑ Peckham, p. 67
  20. 1 2 Rawlyk, p. 102
  21. ↑ Kimball, p. 120
  22. ↑ MacNutt, W. S. (1974). "Gyles, John". In Halpenny, Francess G (ed.). Dictionary of Canadian Biography . Vol. III (1741–1770) (online ed.). University of Toronto Press.
  23. ↑ MacVicar, p. 51
  24. ↑ MacVicar, p. 52
  25. 1 2 MacVicar, p. 53
  26. ↑ Drake, p. 233
  27. 1 2 3 4 5 6 MacVicar, p. 54
  28. ↑ Kimball, p. 122
  29. 1 2 3 Griffiths (2005), p. 217.
  30. ↑ Drake, p. 234
  31. ↑ MacVicar, p. 55
  32. 1 2 MacVicar, p. 56
  33. ↑ Drake, p. 235
  34. ↑ Drake, p. 236
  35. ↑ Kimball, p. 123
  36. ↑ Rawlyk, p. 106
  37. ↑ Pothier, Bernard (1974). "Morpain, Pierre". In Halpenny, Francess G (ed.). Dictionary of Canadian Biography . Vol. III (1741–1770) (online ed.). University of Toronto Press. Retrieved 2011-01-01.
  38. ↑ MacVicar, pp. 58–59
  39. ↑ MacVicar, p. 60
  40. ↑ Rawlyk, p. 116
  41. ↑ Drake, pp. 250–256
  42. ↑ Rawlyk, p. 118
  43. ↑ MacVicar, pp. 62–64

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Queen Anne's War</span> North American theater of the War of the Spanish Succession (1702–13)

Queen Anne's War (1702–1713) was the second in a series of French and Indian Wars fought in North America involving the colonial empires of Great Britain, France, and Spain; it took place during the reign of Anne, Queen of Great Britain. In the United States, it is regarded as a standalone conflict under this name. Elsewhere it is usually viewed as the American theater of the War of the Spanish Succession. It is also known as the Third Indian War. In France it was known as the Second Intercolonial War.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Acadia</span> Colony of New France in northeastern North America

Acadia was a colony of New France in northeastern North America which included parts of what are now the Maritime provinces, the Gaspé Peninsula and Maine to the Kennebec River. During much of the 17th and early 18th centuries, Norridgewock on the Kennebec River and Castine at the end of the Penobscot River were the southernmost settlements of Acadia. The French government defined the borders of Acadia as roughly between the 40th and 46th parallels on the Atlantic coast. It was eventually divided into British colonies. The population of Acadia included the various indigenous First Nations that comprised the Wabanaki Confederacy, the Acadian people and other French settlers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1710 in Canada</span>

Events from the year 1710 in Canada.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dummer's War</span> Conflict between the New England Colonies and the Wabanaki Confederacy (1722–25)

Dummer's War (1722–1725) was a series of battles between the New England Colonies and the Wabanaki Confederacy, who were allied with New France. The eastern theater of the war was located primarily along the border between New England and Acadia in Maine, as well as in Nova Scotia; the western theater was located in northern Massachusetts and Vermont at the border between Canada and New England. During this time, Maine and Vermont were part of Massachusetts.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fort Anne</span> Historic fort in Nova Scotia, Canada

Fort Anne is a historic fort protecting the harbour of Annapolis Royal, Nova Scotia. It was built by Scottish settlers in August 1629 as Charles Fort. For the first 120 years of the fort's service period, the settlement of Port Royal, later Annapolis Royal, was the capital of the New France colony of Acadia and British North America colony of Nova Scotia. In 1917, Fort Anne became the first National Historic Site of Canada. Although no longer in active service, it is the oldest extant fort in Canada. Fort Anne has provided more defensive service than any other fort in North America, having been attacked and blockaded at least 19 times over a service period of 225 years, from the Acadian Civil War through to the American Revolutionary War. The fort also contains the oldest military building in Canada and the oldest building administered by Parks Canada, the 1708 powder magazine.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Daniel d'Auger de Subercase</span> Canadian politician

Daniel d'Auger de Subercase was a naval officer and the French governor of Newfoundland and later Acadia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Battle of Port Royal (1690)</span> Battle of King Williams War

The Battle of Port Royal occurred at Port Royal, the capital of Acadia, during King William's War. A large force of New England provincial militia arrived before Port Royal. The Governor of Acadia Louis-Alexandre des Friches de Menneval had only 70 soldiers; the unfinished enceinte remained open and its 18 cannon had not been brought into firing positions; 42 young men of Port-Royal were absent. Any resistance therefore appeared useless. Meneval surrendered without resistance not long after the New Englanders arrived. The New Englanders, led by Sir William Phips, after alleging Acadian violations of the terms of surrender, plundered the town and the fort.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fort Pentagouet</span>

Fort Pentagouët was a French fort established in present-day Castine, Maine, which was the capital of Acadia (1670–1674). It is the oldest permanent settlement in New England.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Battle of Bloody Creek (1711)</span> Battle of the Queen Annes War in 1711

The Battle of Bloody Creek was fought on 10/21 June 1711 during Queen Anne's War. An Abenaki militia successfully ambushed British soldiers at a place that became known as Bloody Creek after the battles fought there. The creek empties into the Annapolis River at present day Carleton Corner, Nova Scotia, and was also the location of a battle in 1757.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Siege of Port Royal (1710)</span> Part of Queen Annes War

The siege of Port Royal, also known as the Conquest of Acadia, was a military siege conducted by British regular and provincial forces under the command of Francis Nicholson against a French Acadian garrison and the Wabanaki Confederacy under the command of Daniel d'Auger de Subercase, at the Acadian capital, Port Royal. The successful British siege marked the beginning of permanent British control over the peninsular portion of Acadia, which they renamed Nova Scotia, and it was the first time the British took and held a French colonial possession. After the French surrender, the British occupied the fort in the capital with all the pomp and ceremony of having captured one of the great fortresses of Europe, and renamed it Annapolis Royal.

Pierre Maisonnat dit Baptiste was a French privateer famous for the success he had against New England merchant shipping and fishing interests during King William's War and Queen Anne's War. Baptiste's crew members were primarily Acadians.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Siege of St. John's</span> French siege during Queen Annes War

The siege of St. John's was a failed attempt by French forces led by Daniel d'Auger de Subercase to take the fort at St. John's, Newfoundland during the winter months of 1705, in Queen Anne's War. Leading a mixed force of regulars, militia, and Indians, Subercase burned much of the town and laid an ineffectual siege against the fort for five weeks between late January and early March 1705. Subercase lifted the siege after running out of provisions and gunpowder.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Duc d'Anville expedition</span>

The Duc d'Anville expedition was sent from France to recapture Louisbourg and take peninsular Acadia. The expedition was the largest military force ever to set sail for the New World prior to the American Revolutionary War. This effort was the fourth and final French attempt to regain the Nova Scotian capital, Annapolis Royal, during King George's War. The Expedition was also supported on land by a force from Quebec under the command of Jean-Baptiste Nicolas Roch de Ramezay. Along with recapturing Acadia from the British, d'Anville was ordered to "consign Boston to flames, ravage New England and waste the British West Indies." News of the expedition spread fear throughout New York and New England.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Raid on Grand Pré</span> Raiding Expedition of Queen Annes War

The Raid on Grand Pré was the major action of a raiding expedition conducted by the New England militia Colonel Benjamin Church against French Acadia in June 1704, during Queen Anne's War. The expedition was allegedly in retaliation for a French and Indian raid against the Massachusetts frontier community of Deerfield earlier that year.

Pierre Morpain was a French ship's captain, privateer, and naval officer. Active in the waters of the West Indies, Morpain is best known for a highly successful privateering career along the coast of Acadia during Queen Anne's War and King George's War. He notably made a providential arrival, with supply-laden prizes in tow, at the Acadian capital, Port Royal, not long after the first 1707 siege. In his later years he participated as a military commander in the defence of Fortress Louisbourg during the 1745 siege.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Siege of Fort Nashwaak</span> Action of King Williams War

The siege of Fort Nashwaak occurred during King William's War when New England forces from Boston attacked the capital of Acadia, Fort Nashwaak, at present-day Fredericton, New Brunswick. The siege was in retaliation for the French and Indian Siege of Pemaquid (1696) at present day Bristol, Maine. In the English Province of Massachusetts Bay. Colonel John Hathorne and Major Benjamin Church were the leaders of the New England force of 400 men. The siege lasted two days, between October 18–20, 1696, and formed part of a larger expedition by Church against a number of other Acadian communities.

The Northeast Coast campaign was the first major campaign by the French of Queen Anne's War in New England. Alexandre Leneuf de La Vallière de Beaubassin led 500 troops made up of French colonial forces and the Wabanaki Confederacy of Acadia. They attacked English settlements on the coast of present-day Maine between Wells and Casco Bay, burning more than 15 leagues of New England country and killing or capturing more than 150 people. The English colonists protected some of their settlements, but a number of others were destroyed and abandoned. Historian Samuel Drake reported that, "Maine had nearly received her death-blow" as a result of the campaign.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Siege of Annapolis Royal (1745)</span>

The siege of Annapolis Royal in 1745 involved the third of four attempts by the French, along with their Acadian and native allies, to regain the capital of Nova Scotia/Acadia, Annapolis Royal, during King George's War. During the siege William Pote was taken prisoner and wrote one of the rare captivity narratives that exist from Nova Scotia and Acadia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Port-Royal (Acadia)</span> Historic settlement in modern-day Nova Scotia, Canada

Port Royal (1605–1713) was a historic settlement based around the upper Annapolis Basin in Nova Scotia, Canada, and the predecessor of the modern town of Annapolis Royal. It was the first successful attempt by Europeans to establish a permanent settlement in what is today known as Canada. Port Royal was a key step in the development of New France and was the first permanent base of operations of the explorer Samuel de Champlain, who would later found Quebec in 1608, and the farmer Louis Hébert, who would resettle at Quebec in 1617. For most of its existence, it was the capital of the New France colony of Acadia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Military history of the Acadians</span>

The military history of the Acadians consisted primarily of militias made up of Acadian settlers who participated in wars against the English in coordination with the Wabanaki Confederacy and French royal forces. A number of Acadians provided military intelligence, sanctuary, and logistical support to the various resistance movements against British rule in Acadia, while other Acadians remained neutral in the contest between the Franco–Wabanaki Confederacy forces and the British. The Acadian militias managed to maintain an effective resistance movement for more than 75 years and through six wars before their eventual demise. According to Acadian historian Maurice Basque, the story of Evangeline continues to influence historic accounts of the expulsion, emphasising Acadians who remained neutral and de-emphasising those who joined resistance movements. While Acadian militias were briefly active during the American Revolutionary War, the militias were dormant throughout the nineteenth century. After confederation, Acadians eventually joined the Canadian War efforts in World War I and World War II. The most well-known colonial leaders of these militias were Joseph Broussard and Joseph-Nicolas Gautier.

References

44°44′30″N65°30′55″W / 44.74167°N 65.51528°W / 44.74167; -65.51528 (Siege of Port Royal)

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.