The Shira Plateau, located on the western side of Mount Kilimanjaro, is a vast tableland formed by ancient volcanic activity. Historically, it served as a resting point for travelers moving across the high savanna. Some inhabitants migrated to the plateau from the northern slopes to escape threats from hostile groups such as the Maasai who arriived in the area from Kenya in the 1820s.[7] The first Sihans established semi-autonomous chieftans known as Mitaa, including Old Samake, Mane, Kichicha, Sumu, Nguni, and Kyuu.[8]
The region shared a rich cultural heritage, with inhabitants relying on the Sanya River for freshwater. Beyond the plateau, settlements developed around the Kikafu River system, with significant geographical features such as Oldony Muruak and Mkeku marking cultural boundaries.[8]
The higher elevations of the plateau were among the earliest inhabited areas, where communities maintained shared languages and customs, allowing them to protect their livestock from threats. This collection of settlements, characterized by their elevation and conservative lifestyles, collectively defines the Shira Plateau.[1]
Etymology
The region historically known as Kibongoto is predominantly referred to as Siha by locals, pronounced "Sita" by the Usseri people. This name, situated on the outskirts of Mount Kilimanjaro, may derive from the Maasai phrase "La Sita," meaning "something hidden in a corner," reflecting its forested location.[9]
The term Siha is often associated with "Shira" or "Sira," which may have originated in the 19th century. It encompasses the Nguni and Kyuu peoples, as well as the Kingdom of Siha, established in the late 1890s with Ngalami as its first king. While Kibongoto appears in modern administrative contexts, Siha remains the preferred name in local usage, also designating the Siha District in Kilimanjaro. [9][10]
Siha's chiefdoms
The chiefs of the mitaa, appointed by the king, formed a crucial part of a centralized administrative system. While these chiefs were directly accountable to the king, their roles were also influenced by their membership in local lineages. This dual affiliation led to potential political competition, prompting the royal lineage to implement measures to mitigate such rivalry.[11]
In addition to their administrative responsibilities, chiefs managed local courts, oversaw corvée labor, and administered certain local tax collections. This structure allowed for localized governance while maintaining allegiance to the central authority of the king.[12]
The Siha Kindgom was comprised several small chiefdoms, or mitaa, located along the Kilimanjaro forest edge, including Kichicha, Sumu, Old Samake, Maene, Nguni, and Kyuu to the east, as well as Mrau, Komboko, Old Wanri, and Mae to the west. These communities shared a common heritage, distinct customs, and languages. The western boundary of the region is marked by a dense forest that descends the mountainside into the plains, forming a natural limit defined by freshwater sources. The river Sanya is the most westerly river utilized by the Shira plateau peoples, beyond which only brackish streams are found until reaching the river Ngare Nairobi. Below are the historic chiefdoms prior to the 20th century[13]
Chiefdom of Old Samake;the oldest settled country in Siha. Share customs with other forest countries like Kyuu, Maene and Nguni by hiding their cattle in the forest during raids from other countries and were also connected to the eastern chiefdoms of Usseri and Ngasseni.The country is the ancestral home to the Orio, Kileo and Masake (Masaki) clans. The Orio clan has become the ruling dynasty in other kingdoms as well such as Kibosho, Mobokomu, Keni and Mwika.
Chiefdom of Kichicha; was sparsely settled and a vassal of Samake.
Chiefdom of Sumu; was also sparsely settled and a vassal of Samake
Chiefdom of Maene; ancestral home of to the ruling Mmari and the Nkini clans. However, Only the Mmari clan has been established in other countries Komboko, Maru, Wanri and Mae.
Chiefdom of Nguni; one of the oldest Siha settlements this chiefdom later on became part of the Kingdom of Masama in the 20th century. Ancestral home to the Nathai clan.
Chiefdom of Kyuu; among the oldest settled countries in Siha. This chiefdom also later on became part of the Kingdom of Masama in the 20th century. Ancestral home to the Munoo (Munuo) clan thata have ruled there.
Chiefdom of Mrau; chiefdom where Mangi Saiye gave refuge to Manga'ro brother of Mangi Ndesserua during his fight for the Kibosho throne.
Chiefdom of Komboko;home of Mangi Saiye of the Mmari clan wher ehe ruled most of the chiefdoms of Siha during his reign. Also the home of Mangi Ngalami. Also the chiefdom is where the modern day of market of Sanya Juu is located.
Chiefdom of Mae; known for having some of the best blacksmiths in Chaggaland. Eventually it is annexed into tehe chiefdom of Wanri by the 20th century. Also remebered for Mangi Nkunde one of its most prolific leaders.
Chiefdom of Wanri; ancestral home to the Mwandri clan. Home of Mangi Nkunde. Mangi Malamya establisjed a baraza here as his capital in 1920.
Siha's leading clans
The Siha clans claim descent from the Shira Plateau, supported by their high worship sites and remnants of ancient settlements, such as furrows and the sacred plant masale (Dracaena fragrans). Historically, they inhabited various areas of the plateau, with the Usseri people living on the opposite side. These clans traditionally raised livestock and occupied the high savannas until forest expansion altered their landscape.[14]
Early ancestors settled in specific Mitaa(Chiefdoms), fostering peaceful coexistence among descendants. Clans retain significant influence in their chiefdoms, including the Orio, Kileo, and Masaki clans in Old Samake, Nkini and Mmari clans in Maene, Nathai in Nguni, Munoo in Kyuu, and Mwandri in Old Wanri, with a few Mmari members also residing in Maene, Komboko, Mrau, Old Wanri, and Mae.[9]
Mmari; The clan was one of the most powerful in Siha , with Mangi Saiye and his cousin Ngalami. The Mmari clan is notable for its widespread presence across Kilimanjaro, yet it faced significant political challenges in Siha. Despite having strong claims to leadership, especially in the broader context of Siha, the Mmari clan struggled to gain representation after the death of Ngalami, the last ruler chosen by the local population. Following his passing, no Mmari candidate was afforded a fair opportunity to present their claims to the European administrators, whether German or British, who held the ultimate decision-making power. This lack of representation contributed to the clan's absence in Machame, highlighting the political marginalization of the Mmari clan during this period. the clan had 500 male taxpayers in 1960. Their largest concentration was in the mtaa Mrau, right below Samake, where they made up roughly 150 of the mtaa's 600 male taxpayers, making them the most populous clan. In contrast, the Nkini and Kileo clans had 50 and 60 male taxpayers, respectively, and the Nathai clan had about 100 male taxpayers.[9]
Nkini; the clan was the first to leave the plateau and settle in Siha. Seven generations back to the first ancestor Nkini are remembered in this, the most illustrious and revered clan. He descended from a location on the plateau known as Wawa, an open area with red dirt that served as the only source of ochre in the region. It was encircled by dense plants and numerous bamboo.[14] The Nathai clan maintains the sacred fire, a tradition associated with the Nkini clan, regarded as the oldest in the region. Despite the Nathai clan's earlier settlement, they honor the Nkini for their esteemed role as keepers of the sacred fire, which earned them respect among the Siha people. Nkini, known for his cattle and successful farming of beans and eleusine, was the first to settle in Mtaa Mane, where his clan continued the fire rites and agricultural practices.[15]
Orio; about Seven generations go back to the arrival of the first ancestor Orio of the Orio clan. He descended and came to a stop just beyond the present-day forest border, at the location called Siki in ancient Samake. He left one son there. Wherever they went, Orio's sons ruled over others, being accepted as such by the locals not because of their fighting prowess but rather because of their wealth, which is to say, their cattle. After Orio himself moved on to Kibosho, his sons spread widely on Kilimanjaro. As a result, the Orio clan rose to prominence in Kibosho, Mbokomu, Keni, and Mwika in addition to old Samake.[14]
Nathai, based in Nguni is older than the Orio clan and has a notable heritage. It can be traced back nine generations to the arrival of the first ancestor Ondumai. He is also claimed to have arrived from the Maasai across the mountain's upper ridge. He was from a place called Kirarakwa, which is located west of the Sanya River up close to the border of the forest. He made his home in the elevated grasslands above Nguni. His descendant Mariko moved into Nguni proper five generations later. The tribe came down to Nguni to graze their cattle as Masai because they had discovered good open terrain there.[15]
Munuo; have always been the dominant clan in the nearby mtaa, Kyuu, just as the Nathai clan has always been the dominant clan in Nguni. The first ancestor, Kisangasa, is regarded as the first of seven generations. He is said to have originated from Kibo (the highest point of Kilimanjaro), and he originally made his home at Matikoni, a location east of the Nathai clan in Nguni, which is situated between the rivulets Kishenge and Kawa. One of his sons settled in Kyuu after moving further down the mountainside.[15]
Masaki; the clan dates back to the first ancestor Makyora, who came down four generations ago and was a honey-hunter and cultivator of eleusine, beans, and bananas but with little wealth in cattle. The Mmari clan dates back to the first ancestor, Lakanna, who came down from the plateau six generations ago and was a warrior, a great cattlekeeper, and a honeyhunter.[15]
Mwandri; the clan is best known for its allishio with the Mmari clan, with its most prominent ruler, Mangi Nkunde.
The Kings of Siha
Below is the order of succession for the rulers of Siha from the 1820s to 1962:[15]
Mdmdusio (first Siha ruler of the Kileo dynasty); rules all of old Samake.
Kirema (of the Orio dynasty); rules all of Old Samake.
Maletua (Son of Kirema of the Orio dyansty); rules old Samake from Komboko
Siaye (of the Mmari dynasty); rules the lower Siha from Komboko
Lilio (of the Orio dynasty); rules Maene, Kichicha and old Samake.
Ngalami (of the Mmari dynasty, cousin of Siaye); first to rule all of Siha except Samake, from the 1880s to 1900. Murdered by the German authority in 1900.
Nkunde (son of nobleman of the Mwandri dynasty); rules only Samake along with Ngalami. He kills Mangi Lilio to Avenge his father death.
Maimbe (son of Lilio of the Kileo dynasty); rules only Samake
Sinare (of the Kileo dynasty) from 1900 to 1905. Poisoned in 1905.
Jacobus (son of Sinare) rules from 1905 to 1919
Matolo (of the Orio dynasty); rules for a year in 1919
Mamlamya (former Mangi of Kibosho); rules from 1920 to 1927. First foreign ruler in Siha.
Simeon (Son of Nkunde of the Mwandri dynasty); rules briefly in 1927. last native Sihan ruler.
Abdiel Shangali (Mangi of Machame); rules from 1927 to 1945 as Siha is annxed into Machame. Ushering Machame rule of Siha.
Every leading clan in Siha had a unique task to complete. The Masaki were the first to plant the seeds in the long rains and the Munoo in the short rains, as signs to the rest that it was time to sow. The Nkini clan was responsible for creating the sacred fire. The Mmari was tasked with conducting the raids. Blacksmiths in Siha were clanless and separated from one another. They were the "Wasuru" or "blacksmith's" clan, and it was forbidden for them to have any connections to other people. They would never mix with other clans. They even had a unique track of their own to go up and down where they lived in mtaa Mae.[16]
Relationship with countries in eastern Kilimanajro
The Siha people, located at the westernmost point of Kilimanjaro, have historically fostered strong relationships with the Ngasseni and Usseri communities to the east. Communication among these groups was facilitated by a high trail that encircled the mountain, allowing for trade and cooperation.[16]
This trail served not only as a trade route but also as a means for the Siha, Ngasseni, and Usseri to move livestock and hide them during raids from external threats, such as the Warush and Maasai. The Siha engaged in trade at a market called "Kasingireni," exchanging local goods like dry bananas and beans for weapons.[16]
The linguistic similarities between the Kisha and Kisser languages further enhanced communication, enabling interactions among the groups. Some members of the Siha community even understood Kingassa, the dialect of the Ngasseni, illustrating the deep cultural ties and mutual support among these mountain populations. [17]
Sihan religious rites and customs
Oddly, Siha used to be associated with the area of Kilimanjaro that was farthest away from it. Siha was unique on Kilimanjaro in terms of custom, particularly in its customs of stone-cursing and fire-worshipping. Every time a strange occurrence, such as an unlucky omen, a famine, or an epidemic, occurred in the nation, the sacred fire was lit. The Nkini clan was expected to offer prayers for all the Siha residents at these times.[17]
During such calamities, the leading clan elders were requested to make a sacrifice on behalf of the gathered people. The elders would then proceed to Wawa, where they would sacrifice a sheep and light the sacred fire by rubbing two sticks together. The populace walked outside to greet them as they returned with a torch that was blazing. The Nkini elders used this torch to start a fire at an unidentified location in Mane named Kihubihu. A large tree and some bushes make up the shrine at Kihubihu, a high open meadow with a stunning view of Meru and Maasailand over the plains.[17]
The sacred flame of Kihubihu
The fire at Kihubihu served as a pivotal cultural symbol for various Mitaa (Chiefdoms), providing a communal source of flame that represented purification and renewal. Each Mtaa would collect this sacred fire on designated days to replace their ancient household flames, which were extinguished and their ashes scattered, signifying the removal of disaster from the community.[18]
Representatives from Kihubihu would transport a torch to each mtaa, where it was used to ignite new fires for the residents. This act of rekindling was accompanied by a purification ritual led by the elders of the Nkini clan, who sacrificed a pristine ram and created a sacred mixture of its blood and excrement with plants and water. Delegates from each mtaa would secretly gather this mixture and sprinkle it inside homes over three days, further emphasizing the fire's role in cleansing the community.[18]
The Nguni and Kyuu communities also participated by sending envoys to Kihubihu to retrieve the torch, which was then used to ignite a significant fire on a prominent promontory in Nguni. This tradition was unique to the region and reflected a deep cultural reverence for fire as a means of devotion and purification. However, the practice ultimately waned with the arrival of the Lutheran mission, which established its first post in Siha, historically linked to fire-worship. The last recorded instance of this tradition occurred in March 1910, when a shooting star was interpreted as a precursor to illness, prompting a ceremonial sacrifice led by the Nkini clan.[18]
The tradition of cursing stones in Siha
The tradition of cursing stones, known as "Kite," is a distinctive cultural practice of the Siha region on Mount Kilimanjaro. Each small mtaa (neighborhood) possessed a Kite curse stone, characterized as a round, fist-sized chunk of lava rock with a central hole. The clans within a mtaa would collectively designate one clan to safeguard the stone, which was hidden in a secret location known only to a few members of the guardian clan. The purpose of the Kite was to identify guilt in cases of crimes such as murder and theft.[19]
Prior to a cursing ceremony, elders would announce their intentions two to three weeks in advance, allowing individuals who believed they had wronged others the opportunity to repent. As the ceremony approached, the elders would transport the stone to a concealed site, where they would scratch its interior to extract a small amount of powder. A she-goat that had not given birth would then be sacrificed, and its blood, internal organ feces, the extracted powder, selected herbs, and water from a notable spring called Kiboi would be combined in a calabash vessel.[19]
Despite the merging of various mtas, each ancient, now submerged mtaa retained its own Kite, maintaining a degree of independence. In 1958, the Kite was notably utilized in the former mtaa Mae (now part of mtaa Wanri) when three heads of chickens, inscribed with symbols, were discovered buried at different locations. Although no individuals confessed to wrongdoing during the ceremony, it resulted in the eventual return of stolen pangas and beehives, reinforcing the stone's role in community justice.[20]
Siha's golden age; unification
Historical significance of Maene and Samake in Siha
Maene and old Samake were pivotal areas in the early history of Siha, playing a significant role in its development into a unified kingdom. In contrast, the regions of Nguni and Kyuu, located to the east, were influenced by the peoples of the Kikafu basin, despite their own historical claims to ancient villages.[20]
Geographically, Maene and Samake are situated in the northwest of Siha, while Nguni and Kyuu are bordered by marshes and forests, which provide some protection but also leave them vulnerable to external influences. This geographical positioning contributed to the distinct historical trajectories of these regions within the broader context of Siha's development.[20]
Mangi Ngalamani's rule in Siha
In the 19th century, the ruling clans of Nguni (Nathai) and Kyuu (Munoo) produced minor chiefs but were ultimately excluded from the unified Siha chiefdom established during the rule of Ngalami. This era is often regarded as a golden age for Siha, marked by peace, prosperity, and significant cultural development. Ngalami's leadership fostered a sense of unity and stability, which contributed to the region's growth and allowed for the flourishing of trade and agriculture.[20]
Despite this progress, the Siha chiefdom was later annexed by the Machame Kingdom. The dominant clans within Siha included the Orio, Kileo, Mmari, and Mwandri, which were characterized by intense rivalries. These rivalries persisted into the 20th century, influenced by external pressures and changing political dynamics. Ngalami's rule remains a pivotal period in Siha's history, symbolizing a time of relative harmony before the subsequent challenges faced by the community.[21]
The lack of continuous leadership from any single clan has led to a fragmented historical narrative, with diverse interests shaping Siha's past. Historically, the clan elder, or "Mkeku wa Kyungu," held significant respect. In the late 19th century, three monarchs emerged, each influenced by their interactions with the Masai or Warusha communities, with Mmdusio notably linked to the Masai leader Mbatian.[21]
The Siha dynasties
Throughout the brief history of Siha, three principal clans have held dominion over the region. These clans are the Kileo, the Orio, and the Mmari clans. Notably, these three clans are the only entities to have exerted complete control over all of Siha. Their governance and influence have profoundly shaped the political and cultural landscape of the area, leaving a lasting legacy.[21]
The Kileo dynasty
Mmdusio of the Kileo clan in old Samake moved in with Mbatian, Laibon of the Masai, who was then residing in Ol Molog, at a location that is now known. From this point on, Siha's rulership is divided into three parts. Ochre was typically purchased from Wawa, which is located above Mt. Mane, by both Maasai and Samake people. Mmdusio moved into an open residence at Kifufu after returning to Siha. A mangi of the Nguni people (now a part of Masama kingdom), who had escaped westward with some of his people following a raid on his nation by Machame kingdom and had resided at Kifufu until he passed away.[21]
As soon as Mmdusio returned to Samake, all three of the clans there—his own Kileo clan, the Orio clan, and the Masake clan—selected him to be their leader because it was known that he had lived with the Laibon, the Maasai people's traditional healer. There was no Maasai raid on Samake during his reign because he continued to keep cordial ties with the Laibon Mbatian by offering him gifts of honey. The two Maasai Laibons whose names are frequently mentioned in the Chagga's oral traditions are Mbatian and Lenana.[22]
The Orio dynasty
The Orio clan played a significant role in the history of Siha, particularly following the death of Mmdusio, who was killed by a rival clan member in Samake. This event marked the emergence of a notable leader, Kirema. After spending time in Arusha Juu, where he resided with a group from the Waarusha kingdom, Kirema studied their military strategies. Upon his return to Siha, he focused on organizing and training local fighters, beginning with members of his own clan.[22]
Kirema successfully defeated the other two clans in Samake, which solidified his reputation and led to his recognition as chief in the upper region of Siha. Eventually, he abdicated in favor of his son, Maletua. However, shortly after assuming leadership, Maletua moved from Samake to Wanri, where he was poisoned, likely in retaliation by a member of the Kileo clan. This series of events highlights the intense rivalries and political dynamics within Siha during this period.[22]
The Mmari clan is distributed across the chiefdoms of Maene, Komboko, Mrau, Old Wanri, and Mae in the Siha region. This clan traces its lineage to its first ancestor, Lakanna, who descended from the plateau six generations ago. Lakanna is remembered as a warrior, a skilled cattle-keeper, and a honey-hunter. Among the various clans in Siha, the Mmari clan held the specific responsibility of leading raids.[22]
Saiye of the Mmari clan, who lived in Komboko mtaa, south of Samake on the lower slopes, afterward received control. Kirema and Saiye had both been residing in Arusha Juu at the same time. He was taken prisoner by the Warush during one of their raids on Komboko and raised by them, where he learned their battle strategies and developed into a very skilled fighter. He promised his people not to worry about the Waarusha when he got home because he would teach them how to battle them. The elders concurred and gave Saiye several cattle to slaughter and feed to the populace. He demonstrated to them how to create defense trenches all around the nation. He then slaughtered other calves and challenged each fighter to chop a portion of the breast flesh that was spread out in front of them. Each one went and cut a piece, saying, "I'll be there for you until the very end."[22]
Mangi Saiye's military campaigns
Under the leadership of Saiye, the Siha people faced a raid from the Waarusha, prompting Saiye to prepare his soldiers by painting their shields and adopting a Maasai-like formation. He ordered them to let the Waarusha enter their trenches before signaling an attack by killing one of the invaders. This strategy led to confusion among the Waarusha, resulting in their defeat as the Siha forces pursued them.[23]
Historically, the Siha had not engaged in external conflicts prior to Saiye's reign. His first raid, aided by Mang'aro, the brother of the Machame chief, marked a turning point. Saiye successfully raided cattle from the Namwi River and later attempted a second raid into the Machame chiefdom. However, this second attempt ended in disaster for Ndesserua's warriors, who were encircled and largely annihilated. Saiye died in the battle and is remembered as Siha's first legendary warrior, and an adage reflecting on this conflict warns against the misuse of force.[23]
After Saiye's death, Siha fell into turmoil, and clan elders took control until Ngalami, a relative of Saiye from Komboko, was appointed as the mangi of the Mmari clan. He governed most of Siha from the 1880s until 1900, when German authorities executed him and other leaders, marking at least a decade of his rule.[24][25]
Ngalami's authority faced challenges, with various individuals briefly claiming mangi rights in Samake and Wanri. This period is significant as the second of three key phases in Siha's history. Concurrently, Lilio of the Orio clan was also appointed mangi, creating competition for control.[26]
The first Arab immigrants arrived near the Sanya River, trading goods for slaves and ivory. Following a famine in Masailand, they sold fleeing Maasai women and children into slavery, solidifying their dominance.[23]
The first white visitor arrived with the Arabs during their second visit. Residents of Samake allowed entry by dismantling part of a protective trench. When the visitor inquired about the mangi, Lilio had retreated, and his cousin Kirema briefly took his place. Lilio eventually appeared, but the purpose of the visit remained unclear. After three days, the caravan continued to Wanri and then to Kibosho.[23]
Arrival of Europeans and Machame domination of Siha
At the time, the Siha people were unaware of any white residents on Mount Kilimanjaro, despite their trade connections reaching the Usseri. They had no direct relations with their neighbors, the Machame, which contributed to their ignorance of earlier explorations by Rebmann and von der Decken. The death of Lilio, who was killed in revenge for murdering a noble from the Mwandri clan, marked the decline of his dynasty. His rival, Nkunde, returned from seeking assistance and killed Lilio with support from mtaa Kyuu.[27]
After Lilio's death, Mangi Ngalami took control of Samake, while Nkunde became Mangi of Wanri. By the 1890s, Nkunde and Ngalami governed their respective areas, with the Germans arriving around 1891, led by the Swahili Funde. Maimbe, Lilio's son, warned the Siha people against resisting the Germans after participating in the Battle of Kibosho.[27]
Mangi Sina of Kibosho sought revenge for Lilio's murder and conspired against Nkunde, leading to Nkunde's poisoning by Mangi Shangali of Machame. Following Nkunde's death, Ngalami assumed control over Siha.[28] Maimbe took charge of old Samake but was killed by a lion while seeking help from Kinabo. His death in late 1895 allowed Sinares of the Kilo clan to become Mangi of Samake, supported by Kirema from the Orio clan.[28]
Mangi Sinare
The arrival of Sinare was to mark the greatest change in political power that Siha had ever known because, in less than a year, he would become mangi of not just old Samake but also of all of Siha. He has a lot planned for this century's final year. Before being summoned by the German authority to fight the Warush at Arusha Juu, like all other chiefs of Kilimanjaro, he had no time to be installed as mangi of Samake. Upon his return, he was installed in Samake, and shortly after that Mangi Ngalami was hanged by the Germans, and Sinare took his place.[29]
It is unclear at this point if Sinare's ascension to power in ancient Samake resulted mostly from internal conspiracies or in part from outside influence, such as support from Machame, whose royal family Sinare was married into. The scenario is apparent in regards to the greater reward that followed, the chieftainship of all Siha. Siha, an isolated mountain region apart from the major political hotspots, was sucked into the central uproar like a minor piece in a big political puzzle.[29]
Mangi Sinare of Siha-Kibongoto and his men c.1900s
Ngalami was suspected by German authorities for various reasons, including conflicts with an Arab informant and accusations of conspiring with the Masai. His fate was sealed at the Battle of Arusha, where Mangi Marealle of Marangu, aligned with Sinare, orchestrated a campaign against him. Following accusations of treachery, Ngalami was captured and executed in Moshi.[4]
Sinare subsequently became the mangi of Siha due to external pressures, with the Mmari clan holding the strongest claim to leadership, having previously appointed Ngalami. The Orio clan had intermittently appointed various leaders, while the Kileo clan, to which Sinare belonged, had a more distant claim.[4]
Ngalami's death marked the end of an era as the last monarch capable of uniting Siha. Afterward, the political landscape shifted, with Siha's fate increasingly influenced by external forces in the broader context of Kilimanjaro's politics.[4]
End of Siha's golden age
In the 19th century, Siha was initially unified under Ngalami but later experienced fragmented governance among various clans. Between 1900 and 1960, leadership changed eight times among at least five houses. Sinare ruled from 1900 until his poisoning in 1905 by Nauru of the Mmari tribe, which led to unrest and succession disputes.[30]
Factions emerged, supporting either Jacobus, Sinare's young son, or Tarawia, Maanya's brother, with Mangi Sianga of Kibosho backing Tarawia and Mangi Ngulelo of Machame supporting Jacobus. This rivalry highlighted the shifting political alliances, as Kibosho transitioned its support to the Mmari clan due to past grievances with Machame.[30]
The rise of Machame in the early 20th century overshadowed local candidates, particularly from the Mmari clan, who struggled to gain fair consideration from the German or British authorities, ultimately limiting their political influence. Despite their presence in Siha and neighboring regions, the Mmari clan lacked representation in Machame.[30]
Mangi Jacob
Jacob, known as Jacobus, was elected chief in 1905 with the support of Mangi Ngulelo of Machame. His rule, marked by brutality, lasted until 1920, with a brief interruption in 1919 when Matolo of the Orio clan briefly took power. Jacob maintained control through harsh punishments and public humiliation, which led to growing discontent among the Siha people and complaints to British authorities.[30]
By 1920, as his influence waned, Jacob faced challenges from rival clans, particularly when the lower mitaa proposed Barnabas from the Mmari clan as a candidate. Major Dundas, tasked with resolving the conflict, concluded that the Siha people could not govern themselves and appointed ex-Mangi Malamya of Kibosho as the new mangi of Siha.[30]
Mangi Malamya
As he was considering ways to remove Malamya from Kibosho, Dundas made a decision that allowed him to accomplish two goals at once. Malamya had been one of the chiefs falsely accused of conspiring against the newly arrived British government in 1916, the second great engineered conspiracy on Kilimanjaro; after being deported and later vindicated, he returned to find another mangi, Ngulisho, ruling Kibosho in his place. To the British administration, his being there was embarrassing and posed a political threat to Ngulisho.[31]
From 1920 through 1927, Malamya served as Siha's mangi. It is said that he reigned peacefully and that the populace was happy to have him as their leader. The fact that he was able to build his baraza in the lower mitaa of Wanri, the center of the chiefdom, where the Mari and Mwandri clans were dominant, while the upper mitaa Orio clan accepted him as a relative, lends credibility to this theory. Regardless of how he reigned, Kilimanjaro as a whole was about to see a change in fortune due to the appearance of a bright new star in the east.[31]
Siha's formal annexation to Machame
In 1923, Abdiel, son of Shangali, took control of the kingdom of Machame, supported by the British government. His rivalry with Malamya, who sought to expand his rule and had conflicts with the Kibosho royal house, led to Malamya's eventual ousting in 1927 due to accusations of cattle theft and financial mismanagement. Following Malamya's removal and subsequent poisoning, Simeon, son of Nkunde from the Mwandri clan, briefly became the mangi of Siha but was soon forced to retire.[32]
Abdiel aimed to govern Siha directly, using his father as an agent to influence local factions and gaining support from ex-Mangi Jacob, who preferred Machame leadership. This political maneuvering culminated in a proposal to the British governor, Mr. Hallier, claiming that the Siha people had requested Abdiel's rule due to their inability to elect a chief.[32]
By late 1927, Abdiel proclaimed himself "Mangi of Machame and Siha" and appointed his relative, Gideon s/o Nassua, as Mchili Mkuu (supreme headman) to manage Siha. Gideon, from a notable Machame family, ruled effectively from 1927 to 1945 by combining authoritative leadership with diplomacy, promoting fairness among rival clans. He encouraged agricultural productivity, mandating the cultivation of coffee and other crops, and established a nursery for seedlings, transforming the local economy. His governance pleased Abdiel and satisfied British authorities, while the people of Siha benefited from increased prosperity, remembering Gideon's administration as a time of growth and success.[32]
Siha under the British
Beginning in 1945, the British government, acting through the Provincial Commissioner of the Northern Province, officially elevated Gideon to the status of mangi to recognize his accomplishments and avoid any succession issues. Gideon abdicated in favor of his son John within a year. There are plenty of indications that Mangi Abdiel's local research into the likelihood of a Kileo clan member succeeding him and the thawing of his relations with him preceded his retirement.[32]
Since 1945, Mangi John has been in power, navigating the remnants of clan conflicts. These tensions briefly resurfaced in 1945 due to succession issues and again in 1954 in Old Samake. During this time, factions that once questioned the Siha people's capacity for self-governance began advocating for local leadership, presenting Jacob's son from the Kileo clan as a possible leader. However, changing public perceptions diminished the significance of these disputes, which appeared more aimed at provocation than at challenging Mangi John's authority, as there was no strong opposition during his tenure.[33]
↑ R.O. "The Chagga and Their Chiefs – History of the Chagga People of Kilimanjaro. By Kathleen M. Stahl. The Hague: Mouton, 1964. Pp. 394, Maps. 32 Guilders.” The Journal of African History, vol. 5, no. 3, 1964, pp. 462–464., doi:10.1017/S0021853700005181.
1 2 3 4 Stahl, Kathleen (1964). History of the Chagga people of Kilimanjaro. London: Mouton and Co. p.75. ISBN0-520-06698-7.
↑ Cana, Frank R. “German East Africa and Its Future." Journal of the Royal African Society, vol. 17, no. 66, 1918, pp. 125–35. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/716055. Accessed 16 Apr. 2023.
↑ Yonge, Brian. "The rise and fall of the Chagga empire." Kenya Past and Present 11.1 (1979): 43–48.
↑ Berntsen, John L. "The Maasai and their neighbors: Variables of interaction." African Economic History 2 (1976): 1-11.
1 2 Stahl, Kathleen (1964). History of the Chagga people of Kilimanjaro. London: Mouton and Co. p.57. ISBN0-520-06698-7.
1 2 3 4 Stahl, Kathleen (1964). History of the Chagga people of Kilimanjaro. London: Mouton and Co. p.59. ISBN0-520-06698-7.
↑ Chuhila, Maxmillian Julius. "Language and Socio-Cultural Identities in Kilimanjaro." Social Analysis: The International Journal of Anthropology, vol. 63, no. 1, 2019, pp. 104–07. JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/26952442. Accessed 16 Apr. 2023.
↑ Moore, Sally Falk, and Paul Puritt. The Chagga and Meru of Tanzania: East Central Africa, Part XVIII. Routledge, 2017. ISBN 978-1-315-30949-1.
↑ Moore, Sally Falk, and Paul Puritt. The Chagga and Meru of Tanzania: East Central Africa, Part XVIII. Routledge, 2017. ISBN 978-1-315-30949-1.
↑ Stahl, Kathleen (1964). History of the Chagga people of Kilimanjaro. London: Mouton and Co. p.57. ISBN0-520-06698-7.
1 2 3 Stahl, Kathleen (1964). History of the Chagga people of Kilimanjaro. London: Mouton and Co. p.60. ISBN0-520-06698-7.
1 2 3 4 5 Stahl, Kathleen (1964). History of the Chagga people of Kilimanjaro. London: Mouton and Co. p.61. ISBN0-520-06698-7.
1 2 3 Stahl, Kathleen (1964). History of the Chagga people of Kilimanjaro. London: Mouton and Co. p.62. ISBN0-520-06698-7.
1 2 3 Stahl, Kathleen (1964). History of the Chagga people of Kilimanjaro. London: Mouton and Co. p.63. ISBN0-520-06698-7.
1 2 3 Stahl, Kathleen (1964). History of the Chagga people of Kilimanjaro. London: Mouton and Co. p.64. ISBN0-520-06698-7.
1 2 Stahl, Kathleen (1964). History of the Chagga people of Kilimanjaro. London: Mouton and Co. p.65. ISBN0-520-06698-7.
1 2 3 4 Stahl, Kathleen (1964). History of the Chagga people of Kilimanjaro. London: Mouton and Co. p.66. ISBN0-520-06698-7.
1 2 3 4 Stahl, Kathleen (1964). History of the Chagga people of Kilimanjaro. London: Mouton and Co. p.67. ISBN0-520-06698-7.
1 2 3 4 5 6 Stahl, Kathleen (1964). History of the Chagga people of Kilimanjaro. London: Mouton and Co. p.68. ISBN0-520-06698-7.
1 2 3 4 Stahl, Kathleen (1964). History of the Chagga people of Kilimanjaro. London: Mouton and Co. p.70. ISBN0-520-06698-7.
↑ Weiss, Holger. "‘Dying Cattle’: Some Remarks on the Impact of Cattle Epizootics in the Central Sudan during the Nineteenth Century." African Economic History, no. 26, 1998, pp. 173–99. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/3601695. Accessed 6 May 2023.
↑ Stahl, Kathleen (1964). History of the Chagga people of Kilimanjaro. London: Mouton and Co. p.71. ISBN0-520-06698-7.
↑ Stahl, Kathleen (1964). History of the Chagga people of Kilimanjaro. London: Mouton and Co. p.71. ISBN0-520-06698-7.
1 2 Stahl, Kathleen (1964). History of the Chagga people of Kilimanjaro. London: Mouton and Co. p.72. ISBN0-520-06698-7.
1 2 Stahl, Kathleen (1964). History of the Chagga people of Kilimanjaro. London: Mouton and Co. p.73. ISBN0-520-06698-7.
1 2 Stahl, Kathleen (1964). History of the Chagga people of Kilimanjaro. London: Mouton and Co. p.74. ISBN0-520-06698-7.
1 2 3 4 5 Stahl, Kathleen (1964). History of the Chagga people of Kilimanjaro. London: Mouton and Co. p.79. ISBN0-520-06698-7.
1 2 Stahl, Kathleen (1964). History of the Chagga people of Kilimanjaro. London: Mouton and Co. p.80. ISBN0-520-06698-7.
1 2 3 4 Stahl, Kathleen (1964). History of the Chagga people of Kilimanjaro. London: Mouton and Co. p.81. ISBN0-520-06698-7.
↑ Stahl, Kathleen (1964). History of the Chagga people of Kilimanjaro. London: Mouton and Co. p.82. ISBN0-520-06698-7.
↑ Stahl, Kathleen (1964). History of the Chagga people of Kilimanjaro. London: Mouton and Co. p.368. ISBN0-520-06698-7.
↑ Stahl, Kathleen (1964). History of the Chagga people of Kilimanjaro. London: Mouton and Co. p.367. ISBN0-520-06698-7.
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