Postcolonial Africa

Last updated
Dates of independence of African countries Africa independence dates.svg
Dates of independence of African countries

The postcolonial history of Africa spans the postcolonial, neocolonial, and contemporary period in the history of Africa. The decolonization of Africa started with Libya in 1951, although Liberia, South Africa, Egypt and Ethiopia were already independent. Many countries followed in the 1950s and 1960s, with a peak in 1960 with the Year of Africa, which saw 17 African nations declare independence, including a large part of French West Africa. Most of the remaining countries gained independence throughout the 1960s, although some colonizers (Portugal in particular) were reluctant to relinquish sovereignty, resulting in bitter wars of independence which lasted for a decade or more. The last African countries to gain formal independence were Guinea-Bissau (1974), Mozambique (1975) and Angola (1975) from Portugal; Djibouti from France in 1977; Zimbabwe from the United Kingdom in 1980; and Namibia from South Africa in 1990. Eritrea later split off from Ethiopia in 1993. [1]

Contents

North Africa

Moroccan nationalism developed during the 1930s; the Istiqlal Party was formed, pushing for independence. In 1953 sultan Mohammed V of Morocco called for independence. On March 2, 1956, Morocco became independent of France. Mohammed V became ruler of independent Morocco. [2]

Soldiers of the National Liberation Army during the Algerian War of Independence, 1958. National Liberation Army Soldiers (5).jpg
Soldiers of the National Liberation Army during the Algerian War of Independence, 1958.

In 1954, Algeria formed the National Liberation Front (FLN) as it split from France. This resulted in the Algerian War, which lasted until independence negotiations in 1962. Muhammad Ahmed Ben Bella was elected President of Algeria. Over a million French nationals, predominantly Pied-Noirs, left the country, crippling the economy. [3]

In 1934, the "Neo Destour" (New Constitution) party was founded by Habib Bourguiba pushing for independence in Tunisia. Tunisia became independent in 1955. Its bey was deposed and Habib Bourguiba elected as President of Tunisia. [4]

In 1954, Gamal Abdel Nasser deposed the monarchy of Egypt in the Egyptian Revolution of 1952 and came to power as Prime Minister of Egypt. [5] Muammar Gaddafi led the 1969 Libyan coup d'état which deposed Idris of Libya. Gaddafi remained in power until his death in the Libyan Civil War of 2011. [6] Egypt was involved in several wars against Israel and was allied with other Arab countries. The first was the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, right after the state of Israel was founded. Egypt went to war again in the Six-Day War of 1967 and lost the Sinai Peninsula to Israel. They went to war yet again in the Yom Kippur War of 1973. In 1979, President of Egypt Anwar Sadat and Prime Minister of Israel Menachem Begin signed the Camp David Accords, which gave back the Sinai Peninsula to Egypt in exchange for the recognition of Israel. The accords are still in effect today. In 1981, Sadat was assassinated by members of the Egyptian Islamic Jihad under Khalid Islambouli. The assassins were Islamists who targeted Sadat for his signing of the Accords. [7]

South African-occupied South West Africa (1915-1990) and maximum extent of South African and UNITA operations in Angola and Zambia during the Angolan Civil War South Africa Border War Map.png
South African-occupied South West Africa (1915–1990) and maximum extent of South African and UNITA operations in Angola and Zambia during the Angolan Civil War

West Africa

Following World War II, nationalist movements arose across West Africa, most notably in Ghana under Kwame Nkrumah. [8] In 1957, Ghana became the first sub-Saharan colony to achieve its independence, followed the next year by France's colonies; by 1974, West Africa's nations were entirely autonomous. Since independence, many West African nations have been plagued by corruption and instability, with notable civil wars in Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Liberia, and Ivory Coast, and a succession of military coups in Ghana and Burkina Faso. Many states have failed to develop their economies despite enviable natural resources, and political instability is often accompanied by undemocratic government. [9] [10]

Central Africa

Ambazonian nationalism gained steam in 1982 Flag of the Federal Republic of Southern Cameroons.svg
Ambazonian nationalism gained steam in 1982

The central regions of Africa were traditionally regarded to be the regions between Kilwa and the mouth of the Zambesi river. Due to its isolated position from the coasts, this area has received minimal attention from historians pertaining to Africa. It also had one of the most varied sources of European colonial imperialists including Germany in Cameroon, Britain in Northern Cameroons, Belgium in Congo, and France in CAF. Due to its territory, among the main trope s regarding Central Africa is traversing its lands and the nature of its tropicals. [11] Since 1982, one of the main protracted issues within central Africa has been the ongoing secession movement of the secessionist entity of Ambazonia. The impasse between Cameroon and Ambazonia gained steam in 1992 when Fon Gorji-Dinka filed an international lawsuit against Cameroon claiming that Ambazonian territories are held illegally by the latter and describing Cameroonian claims on Ambazonian territories as illegal. Fifteen years later, this stalemate would escalate when Abmazonia formally declared itself as the Federal Republic of Ambazonia. [12]

East Africa

Troops of the King's African Rifles carry supplies while on watch for Mau Mau fighters during the Mau Mau Uprising. 1952-1956 KAR Mau Mau.jpg
Troops of the King's African Rifles carry supplies while on watch for Mau Mau fighters during the Mau Mau Uprising. 1952-1956

The Mau Mau Uprising took place in Kenya from 1952 until 1956 but was put down by British and local forces. A state of emergency remained in place until 1960. Kenya became independent in 1963, and Jomo Kenyatta served as its first president. [13]

The early 1960s also signaled the start of major clashes between the Hutus and the Tutsis in Rwanda and Burundi. In 1994 this culminated in the Rwandan genocide, a conflict in which over 800,000 people were murdered. [14]

Southern Africa

In 1948 the apartheid laws were started in South Africa by the dominant National Party. These were largely a continuation of existing policies; the difference was the policy of "separate development" (Apartheid). Where previous policies had only been disparate efforts to economically exploit the African majority, Apartheid represented an entire philosophy of separate racial goals, leading to both the divisive laws of 'petty apartheid,' and the grander scheme of African homelands. [15]

Nelson Mandela voting in the 1994 South African elections. He became the first Post-Apartheid leader of South Africa. Mandela voting in 1994.jpg
Nelson Mandela voting in the 1994 South African elections. He became the first Post-Apartheid leader of South Africa.

In 1994, Apartheid ended, and Nelson Mandela of the African National Congress was elected president after the South African general election, 1994, the country's first non-racial election. [16]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Africa Cup of Nations</span> African association football tournament for mens national teams

The Africa Cup of Nations, commonly abbreviated as AFCON and officially known as the TotalEnergies Africa Cup of Nations for sponsorship reasons, is the main biennial international men's association football competition in Africa. It is sanctioned by the Confederation of African Football (CAF) and was first held in 1957. Since 1968, it has been held every two years, switching to odd-numbered years in 2013.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Decolonization</span> Undoing political, economic and cultural legacies of colonisation

Decolonization is the undoing of colonialism, the latter being the process whereby imperial nations establish and dominate foreign territories, often overseas. The meanings and applications of the term are disputed. Some scholars of decolonization focus especially on independence movements in the colonies and the collapse of global colonial empires.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">United Nations Economic Commission for Africa</span> United Nations continental organization formed in 1958

The United Nations Economic Commission for Africa was established in 1958 by the United Nations Economic and Social Council to encourage economic cooperation among its member states following a recommendation of the United Nations General Assembly. It is one of five regional commissions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Maghrebi Jews</span> Jewish diaspora of Northwest Africa

Maghrebi Jews, are a Jewish diaspora group with a long history in the Maghreb region of North Africa, which includes present-day Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, and Libya. These communities were established long before the Arab conquest, and continued to develop under Muslim rule during the Middle Ages. Maghrebi Jews represent the second-largest Jewish diaspora group, with their descendants forming a major part of the global Jewish population.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Libya national football team</span> Mens association football team

The Libya national football team represents Libya in men's international association football and it is controlled by the Libyan Football Federation. The team has never qualified for FIFA World Cup but has qualified for editions of the Africa Cup of Nations in 1982, 2006, and 2012. In 1982, the team was both the host and runner-up. In the Arab Cup, Libya finished second in 1964 and 2012, and third in 1966. The team is affiliated with both FIFA and Confederation of African Football (CAF).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Decolonisation of Africa</span> Independence of African colonies from European powers

The decolonisation of Africa was a series of political developments in Africa that spanned from the mid-1950s to 1975, during the Cold War. Colonial governments gave way to sovereign states in a process often marred by violence, political turmoil, widespread unrest, and organised revolts. Major events in the decolonisation of Africa included the Mau Mau rebellion, the Algerian War, the Congo Crisis, the Angolan War of Independence, the Zanzibar Revolution, and the events leading to the Nigerian Civil War.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Foreign relations of the African Union</span> An African International agency

The individual member states of the African Union (AU) coordinate foreign policy through this agency, in addition to conducting their own international relations on a state-by-state basis. The AU represents the interests of African peoples at large in intergovernmental organizations (IGO's); for instance, it is a permanent observer at the United Nations' General Assembly.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of modern Tunisia</span>

In its modern history, Tunisia is a sovereign republic, officially called the Republic of Tunisia. Tunisia has over ten million citizens, almost all of Arab-Berber descent. The Mediterranean Sea is to the north and east, Libya to the southeast, and Algeria to the west. Tunis is the capital and the largest city ; it is located near the ancient site of the city of Carthage.

Association football is the most popular sport in nearly every African country, and thirteen members of the Confederation of African Football (CAF) have competed at the sport's biggest event – the FIFA World Cup.

This page details the qualifying process for the 1988 African Cup of Nations in Morocco. Morocco, as hosts, and Egypt, as title holders, qualified automatically.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Egypt national football team results (2000–2019)</span>

This is a list of the Egypt national football team results from 2000 to 2019.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nigeria national football team results (2000–2009)</span>

The Nigeria national football team represents Nigeria in men's international football.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Libya national football team results (2000–2019)</span>

This is a list of the Libya national football team results from 2000 until 2019.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">International reactions to the Anglophone Crisis</span>

From 2018, the Anglophone Crisis drew increasing international attention, and became a challenge to Cameroon's foreign relations. Triggered by a violent crackdown on the 2016–2017 Cameroonian protests, the conflict escalated from a low-scale insurgency to a civil war-like situation. While Cameroon enjoys support from African countries, no country has openly supported the Ambazonian independence movements. However, many countries have put pressure on Cameroon to talk to the separatists. In addition, the separatists enjoy support from officers in the Nigerian Army, who have helped arrange arms deals for them.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Athletics at the 2019 African Games</span> International athletics championship event

Athletics at the 2019 African Games was held from 26 to 30 August 2019 in Rabat, Morocco.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tunisia national football team results (2000–2019)</span>

This article provides details of international football games played by the Tunisia national football team from 2000 to 2019.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">3rd Summit of the Non-Aligned Movement</span> 1970 Lusaka summit conference

Third Conference of the Non-Aligned Movement on 8–10 September 1970 in Lusaka, Zambia was the third conference of the Non-Aligned Movement. A preparatory meeting of Foreign Ministers drafted a number of resolutions which were considered by the Summit Conference. President of Zambia Kenneth Kaunda opened the conference by underlining non-alignment as "the natural choice at the time of increased hostility created by ideological conflicts in the bipolar world"

<span class="mw-page-title-main">7th Summit of the Non-Aligned Movement</span> 1983 New Delhi summit conference

Seventh Summit Conference of Heads of State or Government of the Non-Aligned Movement on 7–12 March 1983 took place in New Delhi in India, one of the founders and leading members of the Non-Aligned Movement. The summit followed the 1979 summit in Havana, Cuba at which confrontation between moderate member states led by SFR Yugoslavia and India and radical states led by Cuba led the movement into crisis. The keynote address delivered by Prime Minister of India Indira Gandhi. At the summit in New Delhi Bahamas, Barbados, Colombia and Vanuatu were admitted as new member states, Papua New Guinea, Antigua and Barbuda as observers and Dominican Republic as an guest state. Cambodia was absent from the meeting due to rival delegations controversy, Saint Lucia failed to send a delegation while Luxembourg's request for an guest status was rejected on formalistic deadline grounds. 1,500 journalists followed the event.

This article lists the results of the Morocco national football team from 1990 to 2019.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Angola national football team results (2000–2019)</span> Angola results page template

This is a list of the Angola national football team results from 2000 to 2019.

References

  1. Henry S. Wilson, African decolonization (E. Arnold, 1994).
  2. Thomas K. Park and Aomar Boum, Historical dictionary of Morocco (Scarecrow Press, 2006).
  3. Alistair Horne, A savage war of peace: Algeria 1954–1962 (1977).
  4. Lye (2002), pp. 97, 264.
  5. McDermott, Anthony (1988). Egypt from Nasser to Mubarak: A Flawed Revolution. London: Croom Helm.
  6. Pargeter, Alison (2012). Libya: The Rise and Fall of Qaddafi. Yale UP.
  7. Joseph Finklestone, Anwar Sadat: visionary who dared (Routledge, 2013).
  8. J.F. Ade Ajayi and Michael Crowder. History of West Africa (2 vol. 1970–87)
  9. David Apter, Ghana in transition (Princeton University Press, 2015).
  10. David Owusu-Ansah, Historical dictionary of Ghana (Rowman & Littlefield, 2014)
  11. Schmutterer, Heinz. "Pests of crops in Northeast and Central Africa, with particular reference to the Sudan." Pests of crops in Northeast and Central Africa, with particular reference to the Sudan. (1969).
  12. Hennebel, Ludovic. "Chronique des Décisions du Comité des Droits de L'Homme des Nations Unies (2007/2010)(United Nations Human Rights Committee's Case-Law Review (2007/2010))." Law Review (2010): 545.
  13. Daniel Branch, Defeating Mau Mau, creating Kenya: Counterinsurgency, civil war, and decolonization (Cambridge UP, 2009).
  14. Christopher C. Taylor, Sacrifice as terror: the Rwandan genocide of 1994 (Berg Publishers, 1999).
  15. Leonard Thompson, A history of South Africa (Yale Up, 2001).
  16. Rita Barnard, ed. The Cambridge Companion to Nelson Mandela (Cambridge UP, 2014).

Further reading