History of Eurasia

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By the time of the Roman Empire, the Silk Road was firmly established. Transasia trade routes 1stC CE gr2.png
By the time of the Roman Empire, the Silk Road was firmly established.
Eurasia around 200 AD East-Hem 200ad.jpg
Eurasia around 200 AD

The history of Eurasia is the collective history of a continental area with several distinct peripheral coastal regions: Southwest Asia, South Asia, East Asia, Southeast Asia, and Western Europe, linked by the interior mass of the Eurasian steppe of Central Asia and Eastern Europe. Perhaps beginning with the Steppe Route trade, the early Silk Road, the Eurasian view of history seeks establishing genetic, cultural, and linguistic links between Eurasian cultures of antiquity. Much interest in this area lies with the presumed origin of the speakers of the Proto-Indo-European language and chariot warfare in Central Eurasia. [1]

Contents

Prehistory

Lower Paleolithic

Fossilized remains of Homo ergaster and Homo erectus between 1.8 and 1.0 million years old have been found in Europe (Georgia (Dmanisi), Spain), Indonesia (e.g., Sangiran and Trinil), Vietnam, and China (e.g., Shaanxi). (See also:Multiregional hypothesis.) The first remains are of Olduwan culture, later of Acheulean and Clactonian culture. Finds of later fossils, such as Homo cepranensis, are local in nature, so the extent of human residence in Eurasia during 1,000,000 – 300,000 ybp remains a mystery.

Middle Paleolithic

Geologic temperature records indicate two intense ice ages dated around 650000 ybp and 450000 ybp. These would have presented any humans outside the tropics unprecedented difficulties. Indeed, fossils from this period are very few, and little can be said of human habitats in Eurasia during this period. The few finds are of Homo antecessor and Homo heidelbergensis, and Lantian Man in China.

After this, Homo neanderthalensis, with his Mousterian technology, emerged, in areas from Europe to western Asia and continued to be the dominant group of humans in Europe and the Middle East up until 40000–28000 ybp. Peking Man has also been dated to this period. During the Eemian Stage, humans probably (e.g. Wolf Cave) spread wherever their technology and skills allowed. The Sahara dried up, forming a difficult area for peoples to cross.

The birth of the first modern humans (Homo sapiens idaltu) has been dated between 200000 and 130000 ybp (see:Mitochondrial Eve, Single-origin hypothesis), that is, to the coldest phase of the Riss glaciation. Remains of Aterian culture appear in the archaeological evidence.

Population bottleneck

In the beginning of the last ice age a supervolcano erupted in Indonesia. Theory states the effects of the eruption caused global climatic changes for many years, effectively obliterating most of the earlier cultures. Y-chromosomal Adam (90000–60000 BP, dated data) was initially dated here. Neanderthals survived this abrupt change in the environment, so it's possible for other human groups too. According to the theory humans survived in Africa, and began to resettle areas north, as the effects of the eruption slowly vanished. Upper Paleolithic revolution began after this extreme event, the earliest finds are dated c.50000 BC.

A divergence in genetical evidence occurs during the early phase of the glaciation. Descendants of female haplogroups M, N and male CT are the ones found among Eurasian peoples today.

Upper Paleolithic

Humans populated all of ice-free Europe during the Upper Paleolithic Upper Paleolihic Art in Europe.gif
Humans populated all of ice-free Europe during the Upper Paleolithic

The Southern Dispersal scenario postulates the arrival of anatomically modern humans to Eurasia beginning about 70,000 BC. Moving along the southern coast of Asia, they reached Maritime Southeast Asia by about 65,000 years ago. The establishment of population centers in Western Asia, the Indian subcontinent and in East Asia is attested by about 50,000 years ago. The Eurasian Upper Paleolithic proper is taken after c. 45,000 years ago, with the Cro-Magnon expansion into Europe (Mousterian), and the expansion into the Mammoth steppe of Northern Asia.

Migrations

Tracing back minute differences in the genomes of modern humans by methods of genetic genealogy, can and have been used to produce models of historical migration. Though these give indications of the routes taken by ancestral humans, genetic marker dating is becoming more accurate. The earliest migrations (dated c. 75.000 BP) from the Red Sea shores have been most likely along southern coast of Asia. After this, tracking and timing genetical markers gets increasingly difficult. What is known, is that on areas, of what is now Iraq, Iran, Pakistan and Afghanistan, genetic markers diversify (from about 60000 BC), and subsequent migrations emerge to all directions (even back to the Levant) and North Africa. From the foothills of the Zagros, big game hunting cultures developed which spread across the Eurasian steppe. Crossing the Caucasus and the Ural Mountains were the ancestors of Samoyeds and the ancestors of Uralic peoples, developing sleds, skis and canoes. Through Kazakhstan moved the ancestors of the Indigenous Americans (dated 50000–40000 BC). Eastbound (maybe through Dzungaria and the Tarim Basin went the ancestors of the northern Chinese and Koreans. It is possible that the routes taken by the Indo-European ancestors travelled across the Bosphorus. Genetic evidence suggests a number of separate migrations (1.Anatoleans 2. Tocharians, 3 Celto-Illyrians, 4.Germanic and Slav, - possibly in this order). Archaeological evidence has not been identified for a number of different groups. On historical linguistic evidence, see for example classification of Thracian. The traditional view of associating early Celts with the Hallstatt culture, and the Nordic Bronze Age with Germanic peoples. The Roman Empire spread after the first widespread use of iron outside Central Europe from the Villanovan culture area. Most likely there was trade also in these periods, e.g. with amber and salt being major products.

Influences from northern Africa via Gibraltar and Sicilia cannot be readily discounted. Many other questions remain open, too; for example, Neanderthals were still present at this time. More genetic data is being gathered by various research programs.

Early Holocene

Primary cultural areas in Europe c.4500 BC European-middle-neolithic-en.svg
Primary cultural areas in Europe c.4500 BC

As the ice age ended, major environmental changes happened, such as sea level rise (est. 120m), vegetation changes, and animals disappearing in the Holocene extinction event. At the same time Neolithic Revolution began and humans started to make pottery, began to cultivate crops and domesticated some animal species.

Neolithic cultures in Eurasia are many, and best discussed in separate articles. Some of the articles on this subject include: Natufian culture, Jōmon culture, List of Neolithic cultures of China and Mehrgarh. European sites are many, they are discussed in Prehistoric Europe. The finding of Ötzi the Iceman (dated 3300 BC) provides an important insight to Chalcolithic period in Europe. Proto-languages of various peoples have been forming in this period, though no literal evidence can (by definition) be found. Later migrations further complicate the study of migrations in this period.

Emergence of civilizations

Due to the similarities between Indo-European languages spoken throughout Europe, Iran, and India, it is widely believed that a group originating in the Pontic steppe in the 5th millennium BC spread both east and west, gradually making their way towards the Indian subcontinent and China in the east and western Europe in the west. These Proto-Indo-Europeans spread their languages into the Middle East, India, Europe, and to the borders of China.

Early forms of civilization in Southwest Asia began as early as the 8th millennium BC, in proto-urban centers such as Çatalhöyük. Urban civilizations began to emerge in the Chalcolithic. The earliest urban civilizations in Mesopotamia, India, and China all developed along river valleys. The Uruk period of Mesopotamia dates from about 4000 to 3100 BC and provides the earliest signs of the existence of states in the Near East. Civilizations grew along the Indus River around 3300 BC in Bronze Age India and in 1700 BE along the Yellow River in China. [2] The valleys provided plentiful water and the enrichment of the soil due to annual floods, which made it possible to grow excess crops beyond what was needed to sustain an agricultural village. This allowed for some members of the community to engage in non-agricultural activities, such as the construction of buildings, trade, and social organization. [3] [4] Boats on the river provided an easy and efficient way to transport people and goods, allowing for the development of trade and facilitating central control of outlying areas. [5] Writing likely developed independently in multiple Eurasian civilizations, including Mesopotamia (between 3400 and 3100 BC) and China (1200 BC). [6]

In southern Europe, the Minoan civilization of the Aegean Islands began around 3500 BC, with the complex urban civilization beginning around 2000 BC. [7] It left behind a number of massive building complexes, sophisticated art, and writing systems. Its economy benefited from a network of trade around much of the Mediterranean. By the 2nd millennium BC, the eastern coastlines of the Mediterranean were dominated by the Hittite and Egyptian empires, competing for control over the city states in the Levant.

The Black Sea area was another cradle of European civilization. The prehistoric fortified stone settlement of Solnitsata (5500–4200 BC) is one of the oldest known towns in Europe. [8] [9] The Bronze Age arose in this region during the final centuries of the 4th millennium.

The Bronze Age collapse ended the Late Bronze Age in much of Europe and the Mediterranean region, leading to the Early Iron Age. [10] The Bronze Age collapse may be seen in the context of a technological history that saw the slow, comparatively continuous spread of iron-working technology in the region, beginning in the 13th and 12th centuries BC. [11] The cultural collapse of the Mycenaean kingdoms, the Hittite Empire in Anatolia and Syria, and the Egyptian Empire in Syria and Israel, the scission of long-distance trade contacts and sudden eclipse of literacy occurred between 1206 and 1150 BC. The gradual end of the Dark Age that ensued saw the rise of settled Neo-Hittite Aramaean kingdoms of the mid-10th century BC, and the rise of the Neo-Assyrian Empire.

Phoenician expansion from the Levant beginning in the 12th century BC resulted in a "world-economy". The high point of Phoenician culture and sea power is usually placed ca. 1200–800 BC. The Phoenicians and the Assyrians transported elements of the Late Bronze Age culture of the Near East to Iron Age Greece and Italy, but also further afield to Northwestern Africa and to Iberia, initiating the beginning of Mediterranean history now known as Classical Antiquity. They notably spread alphabetic writing, which would become the hallmark of the Mediterranean civilizations of the Iron Age, in contrast to the cuneiform writing of Assyria and the logographic system in the Far East (and later the abugida systems of India).

The Iron Age made large stands of timber essential to a nation's success because smelting iron required so much fuel, and the pinnacles of human civilizations gradually moved as forests were destroyed. In Europe the Mediterranean region was supplanted by the German and Frankish lands. In the Middle East the main power center became Anatolia with the once dominant Mesopotamia its vassal. In China, the economical, agricultural, and industrial center moved from the northern Yellow River to the southern Yangtze, though the political center remained in the north. In part this is linked to technological developments, such as the mouldboard plough, that made life in once undeveloped areas more bearable.

A map of various routes connecting 1st century Eurasia. Silk Road in the I century AD - ca.svg
A map of various routes connecting 1st century Eurasia.

In the Axial Age, China, India, and the Mediterranean formed a continuous belt of civilizations stretching from the Pacific to the Atlantic and connected by the Silk Road.

Medieval era onward

The Indo-Mediterranean was the center of Afro-Eurasian connectivity in general until around 1000 AD, [12] with Warwick Ball and William Dalrymple arguing that the Silk Road's prominence only rose with the Pax Mongolica from the 13th century onwards, [13] and Dalrymple further arguing that until then, the main connecting route in Eurasia was a "Golden Road" going through the Indian Ocean and South Asia. [14]

The rise of Islam on Europe's periphery, notably culminating in the 1453 fall of Constantinople, began to fuel a European self-conceptualization of being a Christendom that was isolated from the broader world. Europe came to sharply distinguish itself from Africa during this time period, though its ties to Asia were left more ambiguous. [15]

Modern era

At the turn of the 16th century, new routes arose between Europe and Asia as part of the Age of Discovery. For example, Christopher Columbus's 1490s voyages to the Americas aimed to traverse from Atlantic Europe to Pacific Asia by sailing westward. [16] Though he failed, the Spanish and Portuguese empires that followed in his footsteps were to eventually create trading networks like the Manila galleon that connected a variety of Eurasian regions together (see also: Portuguese discovery of the sea route to India). [17]

The 1869 completion of the Suez Canal furthered connectivity and led into the European "New Imperialism" in Asia and Africa, as it enabled direct passage through the Indo-Mediterranean rather than by travelling around Africa. [18] At the same time, the foundations for the Japanese colonial empire in the Asia-Pacific were being laid, as Western learning and trans-Pacific contact with the United States helped Japan modernize itself. Japan's brief rule over Southeast Asia in the mid-20th century played a significant role in removing European dominance in the region. [19]

Contemporary era

The Soviet Union controlled much of Eurasia in the 20th century. Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (orthographic projection).svg
The Soviet Union controlled much of Eurasia in the 20th century.

World War II, which ended in 1945, paved the way for Asia's decolonization from Western and Japanese rule. [20] The Cold War of the late 20th century meant that there was then a conflict between an American-led coalition against the Soviet/communist presence that dominated much of Eurasia. [21] The end of the Cold War in 1991 saw the emergence of several independent states from the former Soviet Union in and around the Europe-Asia boundary region. [22]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bronze Age</span> Historical period (c. 3300–1200 BC)

The Bronze Age was a historical period characterised principally by the use of bronze tools and the development of complex urban societies, as well as the adoption of writing in some areas. The Bronze Age is the middle principal period of the three-age system, following the Stone Age and preceding the Iron Age. Conceived as a global era, the Bronze Age follows the Neolithic, with a transition period between the two known as the Chalcolithic. The final decades of the Bronze Age in the Mediterranean basin are often characterised as a period of widespread societal collapse known as the Late Bronze Age collapse, although its severity and scope is debated among scholars.

The Proto-Indo-Europeans are a hypothetical prehistoric ethnolinguistic group of Eurasia who spoke Proto-Indo-European (PIE), the reconstructed common ancestor of the Indo-European language family.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2nd millennium BC</span> Millennium between 2000 BC and 1001 BC

The 2nd millennium BC spanned the years 2000 BC to 1001 BC. In the Ancient Near East, it marks the transition from the Middle to the Late Bronze Age. The Ancient Near Eastern cultures are well within the historical era: The first half of the millennium is dominated by the Middle Kingdom of Egypt and Babylonia. The alphabet develops. At the center of the millennium, a new order emerges with Mycenaean Greek dominance of the Aegean and the rise of the Hittite Empire. The end of the millennium sees the Bronze Age collapse and the transition to the Iron Age.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Saka</span> Historical group of nomadic Iranian peoples

The Saka were a group of nomadic Eastern Iranian peoples who historically inhabited the northern and eastern Eurasian Steppe and the Tarim Basin.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Yamnaya culture</span> Archaeological culture from the Pontic steppe

The Yamnaya culture or the Yamna culture, also known as the Pit Grave culture or Ochre Grave culture, is a late Copper Age to early Bronze Age archaeological culture of the region between the Southern Bug, Dniester, and Ural rivers, dating to 3300–2600 BC. It was discovered by Vasily Gorodtsov following his archaeological excavations near the Donets River in 1901–1903. Its name derives from its characteristic burial tradition: Я́мная is a Russian adjective that means 'related to pits ', as these people used to bury their dead in tumuli (kurgans) containing simple pit chambers. Research in recent years has found that Mikhaylovka, in lower Dnieper river, Ukraine, formed the Core Yamnaya culture.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Andronovo culture</span> Group of Bronze Age cultures, 2000–900 BC

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Prehistoric Europe</span>

Prehistoric Europe refers to Europe before the start of written records, beginning in the Lower Paleolithic. As history progresses, considerable regional unevenness in cultural development emerges and grows. The region of the eastern Mediterranean is, due to its geographic proximity, greatly influenced and inspired by the classical Middle Eastern civilizations, and adopts and develops the earliest systems of communal organization and writing. The Histories of Herodotus is the oldest known European text that seeks to systematically record traditions, public affairs and notable events.

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Arzhan is a site of early Saka kurgan burials in the Tuva Republic, Russia, some 60 kilometers (40 mi) northwest of Kyzyl. It is on a high plateau traversed by the Uyuk River, a minor tributary of the Yenisei River, in the region of Tuva, 20 km to the southwest of the city of Turan.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Seima-Turbino culture</span> Bronze Age archaeological culture of Eurasia

The Seima-Turbino culture, also Seima-Turbinsky culture or Seima-Turbino phenomenon, is a pattern of burial sites with similar bronze artifacts. Seima-Turbino is attested across northern Eurasia, particularly Siberia and Central Asia, maybe from Fennoscandia to Mongolia, Northeast China, Russian Far East, Korea, and Japan. The homeland is considered to be the Altai Mountains. These findings have suggested a common point of cultural origin, possession of advanced metal working technology, and unexplained rapid migration. The buried were nomadic warriors and metal-workers, traveling on horseback or two-wheeled carts.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sintashta culture</span> Bronze Age archaeological culture of the Southern Urals

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Indo-European migrations</span> Migrations out of the Proto-Indo-European homeland

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Steppe Route</span> Ancient overland route through the Eurasian Steppe

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Scytho-Siberian world</span> Iron Age Eurasian steppe cultures

The Scytho-Siberian world was an archaeological horizon that flourished across the entire Eurasian Steppe during the Iron Age, from approximately the 9th century BC to the 2nd century AD. It included the Scythian, Sauromatian and Sarmatian cultures of Eastern Europe, the Saka-Massagetae and Tasmola cultures of Central Asia, and the Aldy-Bel, Pazyryk and Tagar cultures of south Siberia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Western Steppe Herders</span> Archaeogenetic name for an ancestral genetic component

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References

  1. ↑ Beckwith, for instance, gives an overall view of Central Eurasian history
  2. ↑ McCannon, John (2008). Barron's AP World History. Barron's Educational Series Inc. pp. 57–60. ISBN   978-0-7641-3822-5.
  3. ↑ Rivers and Civilization: What's the Link?. Mindsparks. 2007. p. 8. ISBN   978-1-57596-251-1.
  4. ↑ Mountjoy, Shane (2005). Rivers in World History: The Indus River. Chelsea House Publishers. p. 15. ISBN   9781438120034.
  5. ↑ "Indus River Valley Civilization". The River Valley Civilization Guide. Retrieved 27 September 2017.
  6. ↑ Boltz, William (1994). The origin and early development of the Chinese writing system. American Oriental Society. p. 31.
  7. ↑ This chronology of Minoan Crete is (with minor simplifications) the one used by Andonis Vasilakis in his book on Minoan Crete, but other chronologies will vary, sometimes quite considerably (EM periods especially). Sets of different dates from other authors are set out at Minoan chronology.
  8. ↑ Maugh II, Thomas H. (1 November 2012). "Bulgarians find oldest European town, a salt production center". The Los Angeles Times . Retrieved 1 November 2012.
  9. ↑ Squires, Nick (31 October 2012). "Archaeologists find Europe's most prehistoric town". The Daily Telegraph . Retrieved 1 November 2012.
  10. ↑ Drews, Robert (1995). The End of the Bronze Age: Changes in Warfare and the Catastrophe CA 1200 B.C. United States: Princeton University Press. p. 264. ISBN   978-0-691-02591-9.
  11. ↑ See A. Stoia and the other essays in M.L. Stig Sørensen and R. Thomas, eds., The Bronze Age—Iron Age Transition in Europe (Oxford) 1989, and T.A. Wertime and J.D. Muhly, The Coming of the Age of Iron (New Haven) 1980.
  12. ↑ Burke, Edmund (2009). "Islam at the Center: Technological Complexes and the Roots of Modernity". Journal of World History. 20 (2): 186. ISSN   1045-6007. JSTOR   40542756.
  13. ↑ Mount, Ferdinand (2024-09-12). "One-Way Traffic". London Review of Books. Vol. 46, no. 17. ISSN   0260-9592 . Retrieved 2024-09-11.
  14. ↑ Dabhoiwala, Fara (2024-09-07). "The Golden Road by William Dalrymple review – when India ruled the world". The Guardian. ISSN   0261-3077 . Retrieved 2024-09-11.
  15. ↑ Bugge, Peter (2000). "Asia and the Idea of Europe - Europe and its Others". Kontur – Tidsskrift for Kulturstudier. 1 (2): 3–13. ISSN   1600-4140.
  16. ↑ "Christopher Columbus Quest to Reach Asia". HISTORY CRUNCH - History Articles, Biographies, Infographics, Resources and More. Retrieved 2024-11-08.
  17. ↑ Hu-DeHart, Evelyn; López, Kathleen (2008). "Asian Diasporas in Latin America and the Caribbean: An Historical Overview". Afro-Hispanic Review. 27 (1): 9–21. ISSN   0278-8969.
  18. ↑ "Behind the Enduring Relevance of the Suez Canal Is the Long Shadow of European Colonialism". The Wire. Retrieved 2024-10-04.
  19. ↑ Stockwell, A. J. (1993), Tarling, Nicholas (ed.), "Southeast Asia in War and Peace: The End of European Colonial Empires", The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia: Volume 2: The Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries, vol. 2, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 325–386, ISBN   978-1-139-05548-2 , retrieved 2024-11-11
  20. ↑ "Global war's colonial consequences". academic.oup.com. Archived from the original on 31 August 2023. Retrieved 2023-08-31.
  21. ↑ Brands, Hal (2023-06-04). "The Battle for Eurasia". Foreign Policy. Retrieved 2024-10-24.
  22. ↑ "The end of the Cold War - The Cold War - KS3 History - homework help for year 7, 8 and 9". BBC Bitesize. Retrieved 2024-11-11.
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