8th millennium BC

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The south area of Catalhoyuk. An archaeological dig is in progress. CatalHoyukSouthArea.JPG
The south area of Çatalhöyük. An archaeological dig is in progress.
Area of the Fertile Crescent, circa 7500 BC, with main sites. Fertile crescent Neolithic B circa 7500 BC.jpg
Area of the Fertile Crescent, circa 7500 BC, with main sites.

The 8th millennium BC spanned the years 8000 BC to 7001 BC (c. 10 ka to c. 9 ka). In chronological terms, it is the second full millennium of the current Holocene epoch and is entirely within the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) phase of the Early Neolithic. It is impossible to precisely date events that happened around the time of this millennium and all dates mentioned here are estimates mostly based on geological and anthropological analysis, or by radiometric dating.

Contents

Global environment

In the geologic time scale, the first stratigraphic stage of the Holocene epoch is the "Greenlandian" from about 9700 BC to the fixed date 6236 BC and so including the whole of the 8th millennium. The Greenlandian followed the Younger Dryas and essentially featured a climate shift from near-glacial to interglacial, causing glaciers to retreat and sea levels to rise. [1] [2] Towards the end of the 8th millennium, the Holocene Climate Optimum (HCO) – also called the Holocene Thermal Maximum (HTM) – began as a warm period lasting roughly 4,000 years until about 3000 BC. Insolation during summers in the northern hemisphere was unusually strong with pronounced warming in the higher latitudes such as Greenland, northern Canada and northern Europe with a resultant reduction in Arctic sea ice. [3]

During the 8th millennium, there were five known volcanic eruptions which registered magnitude 5 above on the Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI). These were at Rotoma Caldera in New Zealand's Taupō Volcanic Zone about 7560 BC; Lvinaya Past in the Kuril Islands about 7480 BC; Pinatubo on the island of Luzon in the Philippines about 7460 BC; Fisher Caldera, on Unimak Island in the Aleutians about 7420 BC; and at Lake Toba in North Sumatra about 7400 BC. [4] The biggest eruptions were at Fisher Caldera, VEI 6, producing more than 50 km3 (12 cu mi) of tephra [5] and at Lake Toba, VEI 8, which, according to Toba catastrophe theory, had a major effect on the early human population. [6]

The date of c. 7640 BC has been theorised for the impact of Tollmann's hypothetical bolide with Earth. The hypothesis holds that there was a resultant global cataclysm such as the legendary Universal Deluge. Bolides are asteroids or comets. [7]

According to radiometric dates, the main occupation phases recognized at Shillourokambos took place between the end of the 9th millennium BC and the end of this millennium, long before the Khirokitia Culture. [8] The fact remains that its disappearance in the Middle Phase at Shillourokambos, in the second half of this millennium, is not an isolated incident but one of a number of expressions of a deep cultural change. [8]

Population and communities

Outside the Near East, most people around the world still lived in scattered hunter-gatherer communities which remained firmly in the Palaeolithic. [9] Within the Near East, Neolithic culture and technology had become established throughout much of the Fertile Crescent by 8000 BC and was gradually spreading westward, though it is not believed to have reached Europe till about the end of this millennium. Planting and harvesting techniques were transferred through Asia Minor and across the Aegean Sea to Greece and the Balkans. The techniques were, in the main, cultivation of wheats and barleys; and domestication of sheep, goats and cattle. [9]

The world population was probably stable and slowly increasing. It has been estimated that there were some five million people c. 10,000 BC growing to forty million by 5000 BC and 100 million by 1600 BC. That is an average growth rate of 0.027% p.a. from the beginning of the Neolithic to the Middle Bronze Age.[ citation needed ]

Fertile Crescent

By c. 7500 BC (see map above right), important sites in or near the Fertile Crescent included Jericho, 'Ain Ghazal, Huleh, Tell Aswad, Tell Abu Hureyra, Tell Qaramel, Tell Mureibit, Jerf el Ahmar, Göbekli Tepe, Nevalı Çori, Hacilar, Çatalhöyük, Hallan Çemi Tepesi, Çayönü Tepesi, Shanidar, Jarmo, Zrebar, Ganj Dareh and Ali Kosh. Jericho in the Jordan Valley continued to be the world's most significant site through this millennium. [10] Çatalhöyük (see image) was a large Neolithic and Chalcolithic proto-city settlement in southern Anatolia which flourished from c. 7500 BC until it was abandoned c. 5700 BC. [11]

Pottery and dating systems

There was no pottery per se in the Near East at this time as the potter's wheel had not yet been invented. Rudimentary clay vessels were hand-built, often by means of coiling, and pit fired. [12] Dame Kathleen Kenyon was the principal archaeologist at Tell es-Sultan (ancient Jericho) and she discovered that there was no pottery there. [13] [14] The vessels she found were made from stone and she reasonably surmised that others made from wood or vegetable fibres would have long since decayed. [13] [14] The first chronological pottery system had been devised by Sir Arthur Evans for his Bronze Age findings at Knossos and Kenyon used this as a benchmark for the Near East Neolithic. She divided the period into phases called Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA), from c. 10,000 BC to c. 8800 BC; Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB), which includes the entire 8th millennium, from c. 8800 BC to c. 6500 BC; and then Pottery Neolithic (PN), which had varied start-points from c. 6500 BC until the beginnings of the Bronze Age towards the end of the 4th millennium (c. 3000 BC). [12] [13]

Agriculture in the Americas

It was from c. 8000 BC that agriculture developed throughout the Americas, especially in modern Mexico. There were numerous New World crops, as they are now termed, and domestication began with the potato and the cucurbita (squash) about this time. [15] [16] Other crops began to be harvested over the next 7,500 years including chili peppers, maize, peanut, avocado, beans, cotton, sunflower, cocoa and tomato. [17] [18]

Other cultural developments

The Mount Sandel Mesolithic site in Ireland is dated to c. 7900–7600 BC. This was long thought to be the earliest human activity on the island, until the discovery of the Alice and Gwendoline Cave pushed the date back to 10,000 BC. [19]

The date for construction of a round-house near Howick, Northumberland is calculated c. 7600 BC by radiocarbon dating. The site is believed to have been occupied for about 100 years. [20]

The Homo sapiens fossil from Combe-Capelle in southern France, discovered in 1909, is estimated to be 9,500 years old (c. 7500 BC). [21]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Neolithic</span> Archaeological period, last part of the Stone Age

The Neolithic or New Stone Age is an archaeological period, the final division of the Stone Age in Europe, Asia and Africa. It saw the Neolithic Revolution, a wide-ranging set of developments that appear to have arisen independently in several parts of the world. This "Neolithic package" included the introduction of farming, domestication of animals, and change from a hunter-gatherer lifestyle to one of settlement. The term 'Neolithic' was coined by Sir John Lubbock in 1865 as a refinement of the three-age system.

The 7th millennium BC spanned the years 7000 BC to 6001 BC. It is impossible to precisely date events around this millennium, and all dates mentioned here are estimates mostly based on geological and anthropological analysis.

The 6th millennium BC spanned the years 6000 BC to 5001 BC. It is impossible to precisely date events that happened around the time of this millennium and all dates mentioned here are estimates mostly based on geological and anthropological analysis. The only exceptions are the felling dates for some construction timbers from Neolithic wells in Central Europe.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">9th millennium BC</span> Millennium between 9000 BC and 8001 BC

The 9th millennium BC spanned the years 9000 BC to 8001 BC. In chronological terms, it is the first full millennium of the current Holocene epoch that is generally reckoned to have begun by 9700 BC. It is impossible to precisely date events that happened around the time of this millennium and all dates mentioned here are estimates mostly based on geological and anthropological analysis, or by radiometric dating.

The 10th millennium BC spanned the years 10,000 BC to 9001 BC. It marks the beginning of the transition from the Palaeolithic to the Neolithic via the interim Mesolithic and Epipaleolithic periods, which together form the first part of the Holocene epoch that is generally believed to have begun c. 9700 BC and is the current geological epoch. It is impossible to precisely date events that happened around the time of this millennium, and all dates mentioned here are estimates mostly based on geological analysis, anthropological analysis, and radiometric dating.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Neolithic Europe</span> Era of pre-history

The European Neolithic is the period from the arrival of Neolithic technology and the associated population of Early European Farmers in Europe, c. 7000 BC until c. 2000–1700 BC. The Neolithic overlaps the Mesolithic and Bronze Age periods in Europe as cultural changes moved from the southeast to northwest at about 1 km/year – this is called the Neolithic Expansion.

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Göbekli Tepe is a Neolithic archaeological site in the Southeastern Anatolia Region of Turkey. The settlement was inhabited from c. 9500 to at least 8000 BCE, during the Pre-Pottery Neolithic. It is famous for its large circular structures that contain massive stone pillars—the world's oldest known megaliths. Many of these pillars are decorated with anthropomorphic details, clothing, and sculptural reliefs of wild animals, providing archaeologists rare insights into prehistoric religion and the particular iconography of the period. The 15 m (50 ft)-high, 8 ha (20-acre) tell is densely covered with ancient domestic structures and other small buildings, quarries, and stone-cut cisterns from the Neolithic, as well as some traces of activity from later periods.

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The Shulaveri–Shomu culture, also known as the Shulaveri-Shomutepe-Aratashen culture, is an archaeological culture that existed on the territory of present-day Georgia, Azerbaijan, and Armenia, as well as parts of northern Iran during the Late Neolithic/Eneolithic. It lasted from around the end of the seventh millennium BC to the beginning of the fifth millennium BC.

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References

  1. ↑ Cohen, K. M.; Finney, S. C.; Gibbard, P. L.; Fan, J.-X. (May 2019). "International Chronostratigraphic Chart" (PDF). International Commission on Stratigraphy. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 13 November 2019.
  2. ↑ Walker, Mike; Head, Martin J.; Berkelhammer, Max; et al. (14 June 2018). "Formal ratification of the subdivision of the Holocene Series/Epoch (Quaternary System/Period)" (PDF). Episodes. Subcommission on Quaternary Stratigraphy (SQS). doi:10.18814/epiiugs/2018/018016. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 21 September 2022.This proposal on behalf of the SQS has been approved by the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS) and formally ratified by the Executive Committee of the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS).
  3. ↑ Park, Hyo-Seok; Kim, Seong-Joong; Stewart, Andrew L.; Son, Seok-Woo; Seo, Kyong-Hwan (11 December 2019). "Mid-Holocene Northern Hemisphere warming driven by Arctic amplification". Science Advances. Washington, DC: American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS). 5 (12): eaax8203. Bibcode:2019SciA....5.8203P. doi: 10.1126/sciadv.aax8203 . PMC   6905875 . PMID   31844667.
  4. ↑ "Holocene Volcano List". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. 2013. Retrieved 7 January 2021.
  5. ↑ "Grímsvötn". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. 2013. Retrieved 7 January 2021.
  6. ↑ Ambrose, Stanley H. (1998). "Late Pleistocene human population bottlenecks, volcanic winter, and differentiation of modern humans". Journal of Human Evolution . 34 (6): 623–651. doi:10.1006/jhev.1998.0219. PMID   9650103.
  7. ↑ Kristan-Tollmann, E.; Tollmann, A. (1994). "The youngest big impact on Earth deduced from geological and historical evidence". Terra Nova . 6 (2): 209–217. Bibcode:1994TeNov...6..209K. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3121.1994.tb00656.x.
  8. 1 2 Le Brun, Alain. "Like a Bull in a Chine Shop: Identity and Ideology in Neolithic Cyprus." Archaeological Perspectives on the Transmission and Transformation of Culture in the Eastern Mediterranean, edited by Joanne Clarke, Council for British Research in the Levant (CBRL), 2005, pp. 113–17. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv310vqks.19. Accessed 3 Feb. 2023.
  9. 1 2 Roberts 1993, p. 37.
  10. ↑ Bronowski 1973, pp. 64–69.
  11. ↑ Langer, William L., ed. (1972). An Encyclopedia of World History (5th ed.). Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company. p.  9. ISBN   978-03-95135-92-1.
  12. 1 2 Bellwood 2004, p. 384.
  13. 1 2 3 Mithen 2003, p. 60.
  14. 1 2 Dever, William G. (1978). "Kathleen Kenyon (1906–1978): A Tribute". Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research. American Schools of Oriental Research. 232: 3–4. doi:10.1086/BASOR1356696. S2CID   167007661.
  15. ↑ Spooner, D. M.; et al. (2005). "A single domestication for potato based on multilocus amplified fragment length polymorphism genotyping". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 102 (41): 94–99. Bibcode:2005PNAS..10214694S. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0507400102 . PMC   1253605 . PMID   16203994.
  16. ↑ Smith, Bruce D. (February 2001). "Documenting plant domestication: The consilience of biological and archaeological approaches". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 98 (4): 1324–1326. Bibcode:2001PNAS...98.1324S. doi: 10.1073/pnas.98.4.1324 . PMC   33375 . PMID   11171946.
  17. ↑ Smith, A. F. (1994). The Tomato in America: Early History, Culture, and Cookery. University of South Carolina Press. p. 13. ISBN   978-15-70030-00-0.
  18. ↑ Piperno, Dolores R.; Ranere, Anthony J.; Holst, Irene; Iriarte, Jose; Dickau, Ruth (2009). "Starch grain and phytolith evidence for early ninth millennium BP maize from the Central Balsas River Valley, Mexico". PNAS. 106 (13): 5019–5024. Bibcode:2009PNAS..106.5019P. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0812525106 . PMC   2664021 . PMID   19307570.
  19. ↑ Viney, Michael (23 April 2016). "Another Life: The case of the knee-capped bear". Dublin: The Irish Times Ltd. Retrieved 8 January 2021.
  20. ↑ Richards, Julian (17 February 2011). "Britain's Oldest House?". BBC History. London: BBC. Retrieved 8 January 2021.
  21. ↑ Hoffmann, Almut; Hublin, Jean-Jacques; Huels, Matthias; Terberger, Thomas (2011). "The Homo aurignaciensis hauseri from Combe-Capelle – A Mesolithic burial". Journal of Human Evolution. Amsterdam: Elsevier. 61 (2): 211–214. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2011.03.001. PMID   21486678.

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