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Republic of Mali | |||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1960–1968 | |||||||||||
Motto: "Un peuple, un but, une foi" (French) "One people, one goal, one faith" | |||||||||||
Anthem: "Le Mali" (French) | |||||||||||
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Capital | Bamako | ||||||||||
Government | Unitary one-party socialist republic | ||||||||||
President | |||||||||||
• 1960–1968 | Modibo Keita | ||||||||||
Prime minister | |||||||||||
• 1960–1965 | Modibo Keita | ||||||||||
• 1965–1968 | Post abolished | ||||||||||
Legislature | National Assembly | ||||||||||
Historical era | Decolonisation of Africa, Cold War | ||||||||||
• Independence from France | 20 June 1960 | ||||||||||
• Established one-party state | 1960 | ||||||||||
1962-1964 | |||||||||||
19 November 1968 | |||||||||||
Currency | West African CFA franc (XOF) | ||||||||||
ISO 3166 code | ML | ||||||||||
| |||||||||||
Today part of | Republic of Mali |
Following the withdrawal of Senegal from the federation in August 1960, the former Sudanese Republic became the Republic of Mali on 22 September 1960, with Modibo Keïta as president. [19]
President Modibo Keïta, whose Sudanese Union-African Democratic Rally (US/RDA) party had dominated pre-independence politics (as a member of the African Democratic Rally), moved quickly to declare a single-party state and to pursue a socialist policy based on extensive nationalization. [19] [23] Keïta withdrew from the French Community and also had close ties to the Eastern bloc. [19] A continuously deteriorating economy led to a decision to rejoin the Franc Zone in 1967 and modify some of the economic excesses. [19] [23]
In 1962-64 there was the Tuareg insurgency in northern Mali.
Republic of Mali | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1968–1991 | |||||||||
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Capital | Bamako | ||||||||
Government | One-party military dictatorship | ||||||||
Head of State | |||||||||
• 1968–1991 | Moussa Traoré | ||||||||
Prime Minister | |||||||||
• 1968–1969 | Yoro Diakité | ||||||||
• 1969–1986 | Post abolished | ||||||||
• 1986–1988 | Mamadou Dembelé | ||||||||
• 1988–1991 | Post abolished | ||||||||
Vice President | |||||||||
• 1968–1971 | Yoro Diakité (First Vice President) | ||||||||
• 1968–1979 | Amadou Baba Diarra (Second Vice President) | ||||||||
• 1971–1991 | Vacant (First Vice President) | ||||||||
• 1979–1991 | Vacant (Second Vice President) | ||||||||
History | |||||||||
19 November 1968 | |||||||||
26 March 1991 | |||||||||
ISO 3166 code | ML | ||||||||
| |||||||||
Today part of | Republic of Mali |
On November 19, 1968, a group of young officers staged a bloodless coup and set up a 14-member Military Committee for National Liberation (CMLN), with Lt. Moussa Traoré as president. [19] The military leaders attempted to pursue economic reforms, but for several years faced debilitating internal political struggles and the disastrous Sahelian drought. [19] [23]
A new constitution, approved in 1974, created a one-party state and was designed to move Mali toward civilian rule. [19] [23] However, the military leaders remained in power. [23] In September 1976, a new political party was established, the Democratic Union of the Malian People (UDPM), based on the concept of democratic centralism. [23] Single-party presidential and legislative elections were held in June 1979, and Gen. Moussa Traoré received 99% of the votes. [19] [23] His efforts at consolidating the single-party government were challenged in 1980 by student-led anti-government demonstrations that led to three coup attempts, which were brutally quashed. [19] [23]
The political situation stabilized during 1981 and 1982 and remained generally calm throughout the 1980s. [23] In late December 1985, however, a border dispute between Mali and Burkina Faso over the mineral-rich Agacher strip erupted into a brief war. [24] The UDPM spread its structure to cercles and arrondissements across the land. [23]
Shifting its attention to Mali's economic difficulties, the government approved plans for some reforms of the state enterprise system and attempted to control public corruption. [19] [23] It implemented cereal marketing liberalization, [25] created new incentives to private enterprise, and worked out a new structural adjustment agreement with the International Monetary Fund (IMF). [19] [23] But the populace became increasingly dissatisfied with the austerity measures imposed by the IMF plan as well as their perception that the ruling elite was not subject to the same strictures. [19] In response to the growing demands for multiparty democracy then sweeping the continent, the Traoré regime did allow some limited political liberalization. [19] In National Assembly elections in June 1988, multiple UDPM candidates were permitted to contest each seat, and the regime organized nationwide conferences to consider how to implement democracy within the one-party framework. [19] Nevertheless, the regime refused to usher in a full-fledged democratic system. [19]
By 1990, cohesive opposition movements began to emerge, including the National Democratic Initiative Committee and the Alliance for Democracy in Mali (Alliance pour la Démocratie au Mali, ADEMA). [19] The increasingly turbulent political situation was complicated by the rise of ethnic violence in the north in mid-1990. [19] The return to Mali of large numbers of Tuareg who had migrated to Algeria and Libya during the prolonged drought increased tensions in the region between the nomadic Tuareg and the sedentary population. [19] Ostensibly fearing a Tuareg secessionist movement in the north, the Traoré regime imposed a state of emergency and harshly repressed Tuareg unrest. [19] Despite the signing of a peace accord in January 1991, unrest and periodic armed clashes continued. [19]
Konaré stepped down after his constitutionally mandated limit of two terms and did not run in the 2002 elections. [19] Touré then reemerged, this time as a civilian. [19] Running as an independent on a platform of national unity, Touré won the presidency in a runoff against the candidate of Adema, which had been divided by infighting and suffered from the creation of a spin-off party, the Rally for Mali. Touré had retained great popularity because of his role in the transitional government in 1991–92. [19] The 2002 election was a milestone, marking Mali's first successful transition from one democratically elected president to another, despite the persistence of electoral irregularities and low voter turnout. [19] In the 2002 legislative elections, no party gained a majority; Touré then appointed a politically inclusive government and pledged to tackle Mali's pressing social and economic development problems. [19]
In January 2012, the National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad (MNLA) began an insurgency. [26] Rebel troops from the military appeared on state TV on 22 March 2012 announcing they had seized control of the country, [27] citing unrest over the president's handling of the conflict with the rebels. The former president was forced into hiding.
However, due to the 2012 insurgency in northern Mali, the military government controls only the southern third of the country, leaving the north of the country (known as Azawad) to MNLA rebels. The rebels control Timbuktu, 700 km from the capital. [28] In response, the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) froze assets and imposed an embargo, leaving some with only days of fuel. Mali is dependent on fuel imports trucked overland from Senegal and Ivory Coast. [29]
As of July 17, 2012, the Tuareg rebels have since been pushed out by their allies, the Islamists, Ansar Dine, and Al Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (A.Q.I.M.). [30] An extremist ministate in northern Mali is the unexpected result from the collapse of the earlier coup d'etat by the angry army officers. [30]
Refugees in the 92,000-person refugee camp at Mbera, Mauritania, describe the Islamists as "intent on imposing an Islam of lash and gun on Malian Muslims." [30] The Islamists in Timbuktu have destroyed about a half-dozen venerable above-ground tombs of revered holy men, proclaiming the tombs contrary to Shariah. [30] One refugee in the camp spoke of encountering Afghans, Pakistanis and Nigerians. [30]
Ramtane Lamamra, the African Union's peace and security commissioner, said the African Union has discussed sending a military force to reunify Mali and that negotiations with terrorists had been ruled out but negotiations with other armed factions is still open. [30]
On 10 December 2012 Prime Minister Cheick Modibo Diarra was arrested by soldiers and taken to a military base in Kati. [31] Hours later, the Prime Minister announced his resignation and the resignation of his government on national television. [32]
On 10 January 2013, Islamist forces captured the strategic town of Konna, located 600 km from the capital, from the Malian army. [33] The following day, the French military launched Opération Serval, intervening in the conflict. [34]
By 8 February, the Islamist-held territory had been re-taken by the Malian military, with help from the international coalition. Tuareg separatists have continued to fight the Islamists as well, although the MNLA has also been accused of carrying out attacks against the Malian military. [35]
A peace deal between the government and Tuareg rebels was signed on 18 June 2013. [36]
Presidential elections were held in Mali on 28 July 2013, with a second round run-off held on 11 August. [37] Ibrahim Boubacar Keïta defeated Soumaïla Cissé in the run-off to become the new President of Mali. [38]
The peace deal between the Tuareg rebels and the Malian government was broken in late November 2013 because of clashes in the northern city of Kidal. [39] A new ceasefire was agreed upon on 20 February 2015 between the Malian government and the northern rebels. [40]
In August 2018, President Ibrahim Boubacar Keita was re-elected for a new five-year term after winning the second round of the election against Soumaïla Cissé. [41]
Since 5 June 2020 street protests calling for the resignation of President Ibrahim Boubacar Keïta began in Bamako. On 18 August 2020 mutinying soldiers arrested President Ibrahim Boubacar Keïta and Prime Minister Boubou Cissé. President Keïta resigned and left the country. The National Committee for the Salvation of the People led by Colonel Assimi Goïta took power, meaning the fourth coup happened since independence from France in 1960. [42] On 12 September 2020, the National Committee for the Salvation of the People agreed to an 18-month political transition to civilian rule. [43] Shortly after, Bah N'Daw was named interim president. [44]
On May 25, 2021, Colonel Assimi Goïta dismissed the transitional president Bah N'Daw and the transitional prime minister Moctar Ouane from their positions. [45] On 7 June 2021, Mali's military commander Assimi Goita was sworn into office as the new interim president. [46] According to Human Rights Watch (HRW) Malian troops and suspected Russian mercenaries from the Wagner group executed around 300 civilian men in central Mali in March 2022. France had withdrawn French troops from Mali in February 2022. [47]
In 2023, there was a proposal from Burkina Faso to establish a federation with Mali. The aim of the federation was to amplify the political and economic influence of both nations by combining their resources, territories, and populations. This initiative was part of a larger trend of African countries forming regional alliances to address shared challenges and advance their collective interests. The proposal faced criticism and opposition due to concerns over cultural, historical, and economic differences between the two countries, as well as issues regarding the distribution of power and resources and the potential loss of national sovereignty. [48]