Pashalik of Timbuktu | |||||||||
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1591–1833 | |||||||||
Status | Moroccan Governorate (1591–1612) Moroccan Vassal (1612–1826) Tuareg Tributary (1787–1833) | ||||||||
Capital | Timbuktu | ||||||||
Religion | Islam | ||||||||
History | |||||||||
• Established | 1591 | ||||||||
• Disestablished | 1833 | ||||||||
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Today part of | Mali |
History of Morocco |
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The Pashalik of Timbuktu, also known as the Pashalik of Sudan, was a West African political entity that existed between the 16th and the 19th century. It was formed after the Battle of Tondibi, when a military expedition sent by Saadian sultan Ahmad al-Mansur of Morocco defeated the Songhai Empire and established control over a territory centered on Timbuktu. Following the decline of the Saadi Sultanate in the early 17th century, Morocco retained only nominal control of the Pashalik. [1] [2]
By the end of the 16th century, Moroccan Sultans were strengthened after the completion of the reunification of Morocco and the victory over the Portuguese at the Battle of the Three Kings, but their financial needs lead them to extend their realm southward to Saharan gold mines and Songhay territories. [3] : 36
Saadian interest in the Sudan region preceded Ahmad al-Mansur. Ahmad al-'Araj, the Emir of Marrakesh, had asked Askia Ishaq I, Emperor of the Songhai Empire between 1539 and 1549, to grant him control of the salt mines of Taghaza . Ishaq I sent a group of 2,000 mounted men to raid a market town in the Draa valley of southern Morocco with instructions to avoid killing anyone. This was intended as a show of strength. [4] : 142
In 1556–1557 troops of Mohammed al-Shaykh, the Sultan of Morocco, occupied the Taghaza salt mines and killed Askia Dawud's official in charge of salt extraction there. [4] : 142 The Tuareg shifted the production to another mine called Taghaza al-Ghizlan. [4] : 151
Soon after his accession in 1578, Sultan Ahmad al-Mansur brought the issue up again with Emperor Askia Dawud, asking the latter to pay him the equivalent of the tax revenues generated from the mines. Askia Dawud responded by sending a large quantity of gold as a gift. [4] : 155 In 1583 Al-Mansur's forces successfully occupied the Touat and the Gourara oases. [4] : 309 This occupation secured the Moroccan advance toward the south, [5] : 69 and had the objective of conquering the Sudan and building up a huge empire. [2] : 153 In 1586 a small Saadian force of 200 musketeers again occupied Taghaza, [4] : 166 which marked the start of the gradual decline of the Songhai Empire. [2] : 154 The Tuareg moved to yet another site – probably Taoudenni. [4] : 167 In 1589 or early 1590 Ahmad al-Mansur then asked Askia Ishaq II to pay him an amount of gold proportional to the amount of salt taken from the mines, which Ishaq II contemptuously refused. [6] : 216–217 [7] : 103–104 This provided the pretext for Al-Mansur to invade the Songhai Empire. [4] : XLII
The Saadian military expedition, composed of about 20,000 men, [8] : 121 left Marrakesh on October 16, 1590, and reached the village of Karabara, near Bamba, along the Niger River in February 1591. [9] : 229 [4] : 176 [10] It was led by Judar Pasha, a commander of Spanish origin. [9] : 229 While the Songhai army was reportedly larger, it lacked firearms, unlike the Moroccans. At the Battle of Tondibi, in March, the Saadian army thus won a decisive victory. [11] : 84 Having been soundly defeated, the Songhai evacuated their capital of Gao, which was quickly occupied by the Moroccan army. [9] : 229 The Moroccan army encamped outside the city of Timbuktu on April 25th, [12] : 175 and captured it on May 30th. Timbuktu became the official capital of the Pashalik. [13] : 415 Judar Pasha was prepared to make peace with Askia Ishaq II. Al-Mansur recalled and replaced him with the second highest ranking officer in the Moroccan army, Mahmud ibn Zarqun. Mahmud Pasha seized the traditionnal capital of Kukya, drove Ishaq II from the country to his death among the Gurmanche, laid a fatal trap for Ishaq's appointed successor, Muhammad Gao, and endeavoured to wipe out the last pockets of Songhai resistance in Dendi. [2] : 156 The Moroccan army conquered Djenné in 1592 and established a number of fortifications along the Niger. [5] : 72 Djenné, Gao and Timbuktu were sacked, pillaged, and burnt to the ground. [14] : 115 The remnants of the Songhai, led by Askia Nuh, were finally defeated in 1595 [14] : 118 at the hands of Mansur ibn Abd al-Rahman (1595–96). Askia Nuh was deposed in 1599; the Moroccans then an Askia as the Songhai of Dendi who remained under their control. [2] : 158 Al-Mansur's army limited itself to the occupation of certain river ports, where they installed kasbahs (permanent garrisons). These included Djenné, Wandiaka, Koubi, Konna, Sebi, Tendirma, Issafay, Kabara, Timbuktu, Bamba, Bourem, Gao and Kukya. [2] : 156 Mansa Mahmud IV of the Mali Empire saw prospects for reviving the power of the old Songhai Empire. In 1599 he attacked Djenné, but was defeated by Moroccan reinforcements sent in boats from Timbuktu. As a result, Mali ceased to be a political factor on the middle Niger. [13] : 455
Sultan Ahmad al-Mansur had died of plague in August 1603, but his successors and their generals carried on the struggle against West Africa. [14] : 118 After 1612, the Pashas who governed the Sudan region were appointed locally by the Arma. [15] : 139 The commander of the Arma, Ali ben Abdallah al-Tilimsani, deposed the Moroccan governor and proclaimed himself the new Pasha of Timbuktu without authorization from the Moroccan Sultan. [5] : 72–73 [12] : 184 The Arma continued to nominated their own commanders, while formally recognizing Moroccan sovereignty. Timbuktu and the Niger bend region had thus become a Moroccan bled es-siba . [5] : 72–73 Sultan Moulay Zidan relinquished direct control over the Sudan territories in 1618. [16] : 119
Despite Morocco's gradual withdrawal from Sudan after Al-Masur's death, the Pashas of Timbuktu remained loyal to the last sultans of the Saadi dynasty. The Friday khutbah (sermon in a mosque) was recited every week in the name of the rulers in Marrakesh, who announced their accession to the throne to the Pashas in Timbuktu and the heads of the garrisons in Gao and Djenné. [2] : 160
The rule of the Arma over Timbuktu lasted until 1737, but it was characterized by constant feuds and internal strife and the succession of pashas: from 1591 to 1833 Timbuktu saw 167 pashas, but only a few survived more than a year in power, among them Mahmud ibn Zarqun (1591–95), Mahmud Longo (1604–12), Ali ben Abdallah al-Tilimsani (1612–17), and Masud ibn Mansur al-Zari (1637–43). [5] : 73 The position of the pasha rotated among three paramount fractions of the Arma, namely the Fassiyin (from Fes), the Marrakshiyyin (from Marrakesh), and the Shraqa (from Tlemcen), while the Dra'a (from the Oued Draa) represented a weaker yet highly respected regional affiliation. [5] : 73
In 1630 the Songhai of Dendi signed a peace treaty with the Moroccans, who subsequently began to interfere in their internal affairs and arbitrate in their succession disputes. But they retained their freedom until the beginning of the nineteenth century, despite strong pressure from the Fulbe and Touareg nomads from Liptako and Aïr. [2] : 158
The Alawite dynasty resumed Moroccan politics of expansion across the Sahara and established a Moroccan base in the southwestern Sahara. [5] : 73 Unlike the Saadis, the Alawites paid little attention to the Nigerian Sahel. Their policy was oriented towards Mauritania rather than the Sudan. [2] : 160
Sultan Moulay al-Rashid sent a force which, in September 1671, arrived in Timbuktu to receive the formal allegiance of its warring Arma factions. [17] : 93 In 1738, a Moroccan expedition reached Ras al-Ma west of Timbuktu and four Moroccan royal missions visited Timbuktu between 1730 and 1745. [5] : 73 With the coming to power of Sultan Sidi Muhammad (r. 1757–90), Morocco's policy in the Sudan made a fresh start based on the revival of trade across the Sahara. Like the last of the Saadi Kings, the Alawite Sultan referred to himself as 'Sovereign of Gao and Guinea' in his correspondence with European governments. [2] : 160
By the middle of the eighteenth century, the pashalik was in total eclipse. In about 1770, the Tuareg took possession of Gao, and in 1787 they entered Timbuktu and made the Pashalik their tributary. [18]
The Songhai Empire was a state located in the western part of the Sahel during the 15th and 16th centuries. At its peak, it was one of the largest African empires in history. The state is known by its historiographical name, derived from its largest ethnic group and ruling elite, the Songhai people. Sonni Ali established Gao as the empire's capital, although a Songhai state had existed in and around Gao since the 11th century. Other important cities in the kingdom were Timbuktu and Djenné, where urban-centred trade flourished; they were conquered in 1468 and 1475, respectively. Initially, the Songhai Empire was ruled by the Sonni dynasty, but it was later replaced by the Askia dynasty (1493–1591).
The Songhai people are an ethnolinguistic group in West Africa who speak the various Songhai languages. Their history and lingua franca is linked to the Songhai Empire which dominated the western Sahel in the 15th and 16th century. Predominantly adherents of Islam, the Songhai are primarily located in Niger and Mali. Historically, the term "Songhai" did not denote an ethnic or linguistic identity but referred to the ruling caste of the Songhay Empire known as the Songhaiborai. However, the correct term used to refer to this group of people collectively by the natives is "Ayneha". Although some speakers in Mali have also adopted the name Songhay as an ethnic designation, other Songhay-speaking groups identify themselves by other ethnic terms such as Zarma or Isawaghen. The dialect of Koyraboro Senni spoken in Gao is unintelligible to speakers of the Zarma dialect of Niger, according to at least one report. The Songhay languages are commonly taken to be Nilo-Saharan but this classification remains controversial: Dimmendaal (2008) believes that for now it is best considered an independent language family.
Askia Muhammad Ture I (1443–1538), born Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr al-Turi or Muhammad Ture, was the first ruler of the Askia dynasty of the Songhai Empire, reigning from 1493 to 1528. He is also known as Askia the Great, and his name in modern Songhai is Mamar Kassey. Askia Muhammad strengthened his empire and made it the largest empire in West Africa's history. At its peak under his reign, the Songhai Empire encompassed the Hausa states as far as Kano and much of the territory that had belonged to the Songhai empire in the east. His policies resulted in a rapid expansion of trade with Europe and Asia, the creation of many schools, and the establishment of Islam as an integral part of the empire.
Sunni Ali, also known as Si Ali, Sunni Ali Ber, reigned from about 1464 to 1492 as the 15th ruler of the Sunni dynasty of the Songhai Empire. He transformed the relatively small state into an empire by conquering Timbuktu, Massina, the Inner Niger Delta, and Djenne.
Taghaza is an abandoned salt-mining centre located in a salt pan in the desert region of northern Mali. It was an important source of rock salt for West Africa up to the end of the 16th century when it was abandoned and replaced by the salt-pan at Taoudenni which lies 150 km (93 mi) to the southeast. Salt from the Taghaza mines formed an important part of the long distance trans-Saharan trade. The salt pan is located 857 km (533 mi) south of Sijilmasa, 787 km (489 mi) north-northwest of Timbuktu and 731 km (454 mi) north-northeast of Oualata.
The Battle of Tondibi was the decisive confrontation in the 16th-century invasion of the Songhai Empire by the army of the Saadi dynasty in Morocco. The Moroccan forces under Judar Pasha defeated the Songhai under Askia Ishaq II, guaranteeing the empire's downfall.
Judar Pasha was a Spanish-Moroccan military leader under the Saadian sultan Ahmad al-Mansur in the late 16th century. He led the Saadian army in the conquest of the Songhai Empire.
Askia Ishaq II, also known as Askia Isḥāq Zughrānī, was the ruler of the Songhai Empire from 1588 to 1591. He commanded the Songhai force at the Battle of Tondibi, where he was defeated by Saadian forces from Morocco who subsequently destroyed the empire.
The Dendi was a former province of the Songhai Empire. It survived the fall of the Empire as a kingdom until 1901, when it was conquered by France and incorporated into French West Africa. Its centers today are the cities of Gaya in Niger, Kamba in Nigeria and Malanville in Benin.
The Askiya dynasty, also known as the Askia dynasty, ruled the Songhai Empire at the height of that state's power. It was founded in 1493 by Askia Mohammad I, a general of the Songhai Empire who usurped the Sonni dynasty. The Askiya ruled from Gao over the vast Songhai Empire until its defeat by a Moroccan invasion force in 1591. After the defeat, the dynasty moved south back to its homeland and created several smaller kingdoms in what is today Songhai in south-western Niger and further south in the Dendi.
Mansa Mahmud Keïta IV, also known as Niani Mansa Mamadou or Soro Mansa Mamadou, was the last reigning emperor of the Mali Empire, according to the Tarikh al-Sudan written in the 17th century. A prominent, if perhaps composite, character in oral traditions, he was responsible for bringing the empire back from its nadir in the 1540s and 50s, but ultimately the defeat outside of the city of Djenne in 1599 brought an end to Mali's imperial period.
The Arma people is an ethnic group of the middle Niger River valley, descended from Moroccan invaders of the 16th century. The name, applied by other groups, derives from the word ar-rumah 'fusiliers'.
Askia Ishaq I, also known as Ishaq Ber, was the ruler of the Songhai Empire from 1539 to 1549, elected Askia following the death of Askia Isma'il. He was the fifth ruler of the Askiya dynasty.
The Battle of Jenné was a military engagement between forces of the Mali Empire and the Moroccan Pashalik of Timbuktu and their allies.
Starting out as a seasonal settlement, Timbuktu was in the kingdom of Mali when it became a permanent settlement early in the 12th century. After a shift in trading routes, the town flourished from the trade in salt, gold, ivory and slaves from several towns and states such as Begho of Bonoman, Sijilmassa, and other Saharan cities. It became part of the Mali Empire early in the 14th century. By this time it had become a major centre of learning in the area. In the first half of the 15th century the Tuareg tribes took control of the city for a short period until the expanding Songhai Empire absorbed the city in 1468. The Moroccan army defeated the Songhai in 1591, and made Timbuktu, rather than Gao, their capital.
Askia Daoud was the ruler of the Songhai Empire from 1549 to 1582. His rule saw the empire rise to a peak of peace and prosperity following a series of succession disputes and short reigns.
The Songhaiborai are a distinct subgroup within the larger Songhai ethnolinguistic family, residing predominantly in Niger's Songhai region and Northern Mali, with a minority presence in Burkina Faso. Notably, they trace their lineage to the ruling dynasties of the ancient Songhai Empire.
The Moroccan invasion of the Songhai Empire began with an expedition sent in 1590 by Sultan Ahmad al-Mansur of the Saadian dynasty, which ruled over Morocco at the time. The Saadian army, led by Judar Pasha, arrived in the Niger valley region in 1591 and won its first and most decisive victory against the forces of Askia Ishaq II at the Battle of Tondibi and occupied the capital of Gao shortly after.
Askia Muhammad Gao was the last ruler of the Songhai Empire. A son of Askia Daoud, he assumed power in the last months of 1591 after the defeat of Askia Ishaq II by Moroccan forces at the Battle of Tondibi and the subsequent Battle of Bamba. About forty days after taking power he was lured into a trap by Moroccans, captured, and later executed.
Mahmud ibn Zarkun, also known as Mahmud ben Zergun, was a Moroccan eunuch who rose to the rank of pasha. For a time, he served as the commander of all renegades in Morocco. He succeeded Judar Pasha as the main commander of the Moroccan invasion of the Songhai Empire from 1591 to 1595. During the battle of Bamba, he defeated Askia Ishaq II and later killed his successor, Askia Muhammad Gao, through a deceitful trap. He continued fighting against Askia Nuh, who succeeded Muhammad. Mahmud was responsible for the repression and plunder of Timbuktu. Ahmad al-Mansur condemned him to death, but before the executioner could carry out the sentence, Mahmud died in a suicidal battle against the Songhai forces on 15 March 1595 near the Niger River.