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Racial discrimination is any discrimination against any individual on the basis of their race, ancestry, ethnicity, and/or skin color. Individuals can discriminate by refusing to do business with, socialize with, or share resources with people of a certain group. Governments can discriminate in a de facto fashion or explicitly in law, for example through policies of racial segregation, disparate enforcement of laws, or disproportionate allocation of resources. Some jurisdictions have anti-discrimination laws which prohibit the government or individuals from discriminating based on race in various circumstances. Some institutions and laws use affirmative action to attempt to overcome or compensate for the effects of racial discrimination. In some cases, this is simply enhanced recruitment of members of underrepresented groups; in other cases, there are firm racial quotas. Opponents of strong remedies like quotas characterize them as reverse discrimination, where members of a dominant or majority group are discriminated against.
Societal racism is a type of racism based on a set of institutional, historical, cultural and interpersonal practices within a society that places one or more social or ethnic groups in a better position to succeed and disadvantages other groups so that disparities develop between the groups. Societal racism has also been called structural racism, because, according to Carl E. James, society is structured in a way that excludes substantial numbers of people from minority backgrounds from taking part in social institutions. Societal racism is sometimes referred to as systemic racism as well.
Ruha Benjamin is a sociologist and a professor in the Department of African American Studies at Princeton University. The primary focus of her work is the relationship between innovation and equity, particularly focusing on the intersection of race, justice and technology. Benjamin is the author of numerous publications, including the books People's Science: Bodies and Rights on the Stem Cell Frontier (2013), Race After Technology: Abolitionist Tools for the New Jim Code (2019) and Viral Justice: How We Grow the World We Want (2022).
The weathering hypothesis was proposed to account for early health deterioration as a result of cumulative exposure to experiences of social, economic and political adversity. It is well documented that minority groups and marginalized communities suffer from poorer health outcomes. This may be due to a multitude of stressors including prejudice, social alienation, institutional bias, political oppression, economic exclusion and racial discrimination. The weathering hypothesis proposes that the cumulative burden of these stressors as individuals age is "weathering," and the increased weathering experienced by minority groups compared to others can account for differences in health outcomes. In recent years, the biological plausibility of the weathering hypothesis has been investigated in studies evaluating the physiological effects of social, environmental and political stressors among marginalized communities. This has led to more widespread use of the weathering hypothesis as a framework for explaining health disparities on the basis of differential exposure to racially based stressors. Researchers have also identified patterns connecting weathering to biological phenomena associated with stress and aging, such as allostatic load, epigenetics, telomere shortening, and accelerated brain aging.
Ingrid R. G Waldron is a Canadian social scientist who is an associate professor in the School of Nursing at Dalhousie University and serves as co-chair of the Dalhousie University Black Faculty & Staff Caucus. She co-produced the 2019 film There's Something in the Water with Elliot Page, Ian Daniel and Julia Sanderson, which is based on her book of the same name.
Giselle Corbie-Smith is the Kenan Distinguished Professor of Social Medicine at the University of North Carolina School of Medicine. She serves as Director of the UNC Center for Health Equity Research and Associate Provost of the Institute of Rural Innovation. She was elected to the National Academy of Medicine in 2018. Her research considers racial disparities in healthcare.
Uché Blackstock is an American emergency physician and former associate professor of emergency medicine at the New York University School of Medicine. She is the founder and CEO of Advancing Health Equity, which has a primary mission to engage with healthcare and related organizations around bias and racism in healthcare with the goal of mobilizing for health equity and eradicating racialized health inequities. During the COVID-19 pandemic Blackstock used social media to share her experiences and concerns as a physician working on the front lines and on racial health disparities and inequities exposed by the pandemic. She is best known for her work amplifying the message on racial health inequities and her media appearances speaking on the COVID-19 pandemic. She has been featured on Meet the Press, PBS NewsHour, Slate and Forbes among others. Blackstock became a Yahoo! News Medical Contributor in June 2020.
LaShyra "Lash" Nolen is an American medical student and science communicator. She is the first Black woman to become class president of the Harvard Medical School. In 2020 Nolen was selected by The Root as one of their Young Futurists.
Rhea W. Boyd is an American pediatrician and child and community health advocate. Boyd is a popular science communicator, making use of social media to amplify a diverse range of voices in an effort to improve the heath of communities of colour.
Racial capitalism is a concept reframing the history of capitalism as grounded in the extraction of social and economic value from people of marginalized racial identities, typically from Black people. It was described by Cedric J. Robinson in his book Black Marxism: The Making of the Black Radical Tradition, published in 1983, which, in contrast to both his predecessors and successors, theorized that all capitalism is inherently racial capitalism, and racialism is present in all layers of capitalism's socioeconomic stratification. Jodi Melamed has summarized the concept, explaining that capitalism "can only accumulate by producing and moving through relations of severe inequality among human groups", and therefore, for capitalism to survive, it must exploit and prey upon the "unequal differentiation of human value."
Danielle Hairston is an American psychiatrist who is Director of Residency Training in the Department of Psychiatry at Howard University College of Medicine, and a practicing psychiatrist in the Division of Consultation-Liaison Psychiatry at the University of Maryland Medical Center in Baltimore, Maryland. Hairston is also the Scientific Program Chair for the Black Psychiatrists of America and the President of the American Psychiatric Association's Black Caucus.
Chandra L. Ford is an American public health academic who is Professor of Community Health Sciences at the University of California, Los Angeles. She serves as Founding Director at the Center for the Study of Racism, Social Justice & Health. Her research considers relationships between racism and health outcomes.
Rachel Renee Hardeman is an American public health academic who is associate professor of Division of Health Policy and Management at the University of Minnesota School of Public Health. She holds the inaugural Blue Cross Endowed Professorship in Health and Racial Equity. Her research considers how racism impacts health outcomes, particularly for the maternal health of African-Americans.
Brian H. Williams is an American surgeon and Professor of Trauma Surgery at the University of Chicago. He specialises in acute surgery and critical care. Alongside his work as a clinician, Williams looks to end racial inequities in healthcare and end the American epidemic of gun violence.
Black maternal mortality in the United States refers to the death of women, specifically those who identify as Black or African American, during or after child delivery. In general, maternal death can be due to a myriad of factors, such as how the nature of the pregnancy or the delivery itself, but is not associated with unintentional or secondary causes. In the United States, around 700 women die from pregnancy-related illnesses or complications per year. This number does not include the approximately 50,000 women who experience life-threatening complications during childbirth, resulting in lifelong disabilities and complications. However, there are stark differences in maternal mortality rates for Black American women versus Indigenous American, Alaska Native, and White American women.
The COVID-19 pandemic has revealed race-based health care disparities in many countries, including the United States, United Kingdom, Norway, Sweden, Canada, and Singapore. These disparities are believed to originate from structural racism in these countries which pre-dates the pandemic; a commentary in The BMJ noted that "ethnoracialised differences in health outcomes have become the new normal across the world" as a result of ethnic and racial disparities in COVID-19 healthcare, determined by social factors. Data from the United States and elsewhere shows that minorities, especially black people, have been infected and killed at a disproportionate rate to white people.
Katy Backes Kozhimannil is an American public health researcher who is a professor at the University of Minnesota School of Public Health. Her research considers maternal mortality and the impacts of structural racism on community health. In 2020 she was awarded the 25th Annual Heinz Award in Public Policy.
Michelle Evelyn Morse is an American internist. She is an assistant professor at Harvard Medical School/Brigham and Women's Hospital and co-founded EqualHealth and Social Medicine Consortium. In 2021, Morse was named the first Chief Medical Officer of the New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene.
Medical racism in the United States encompasses discriminatory and targeted medical practices and misrepresentations in medical teachings driven by biases based on characteristics of patients' race and ethnicity. In American history, it has impacted various racial and ethnic groups and affected their health outcomes. Vulnerable subgroups within these racial and ethnic groups such as women, children and the poor have been especially endangered over the years. An ongoing phenomenon since at least the 18th century in the United States, medical racism has been evident on a widespread basis through various unethical studies, forced procedures, and differential treatments administered by health care providers, researchers, and even sometimes government entities. Whether medical racism is always caused by explicitly prejudiced beliefs about patients based on race or by unconscious bias is not widely agreed upon.
Onye Nnorom is a Canadian physician and public health specialist. She is an assistant professor and associate program director of the public health and preventative medicine residency program at the Dalla Lana School of Public Health. She is the Black health lead for University of Toronto's faculty of medicine, and is a former president of the Black Physicians’ Association of Ontario. Her research considers public health and health inequality for Black and other marginalized communities.
References
- 1 2 Alang, Sirry (2015). "Culture and the Stress Process: Understanding Mental Health among African Americans". University of Minnesota .
- 1 2 3 America, Good Morning. "Why this parent says teachers should stop saying 'your mom and dad' to kids". Good Morning America. Retrieved 2020-09-25.
- ↑ "Professors and universities find creative solutions to keep international students from getting deported". Fortune. Retrieved 2020-09-25.
- 1 2 3 4 Betuel, Emma (4 June 2020). "A ripple effect of police violence could extend the Covid-19 pandemic". Inverse. Retrieved 2020-09-25.
- ↑ "Sirry Alang | Sociology & Anthropology". socanthro.cas.lehigh.edu. Retrieved 2020-09-25.
- 1 2 "2019-2020 Engaged Scholars – Eastern Region Conference" . Retrieved 2020-09-25.
- ↑ hangx012 (2020-06-19). "Addressing Racial Inequities in Health Outcomes During COVID and Beyond". Medical School - University of Minnesota. Retrieved 2020-09-25.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ↑ Batts, Sirry Alang, Hasshan (19 April 2020). "Your View: 5 ways to address racial inequities in coronavirus crisis". mcall.com. Retrieved 2020-09-25.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - 1 2 "Sirry Alang Discusses Police Brutality as a Public Health Issue in Interview with SELF". Lehigh University. 2020-08-10. Retrieved 2020-09-25.
- ↑ "How Higher Ed Can Fight Racism: 'Speak Up When It's Hard'". www.chronicle.com. 30 June 2020. Retrieved 2020-09-25.
- ↑ Hodge, Lisa (2020-09-22). "Mum says teachers need to stop calling all parents 'mums and dads'". Daily Record. Retrieved 2020-09-25.
