Society of the Vijayanagara Empire

Last updated December 07, 2024

The period of the Vijayanagara Empire is considered an age of prosperity in South India in the 14th century CE. Many travelogues written by visitors, ambassadors and authors of that time provide ample proof of a vibrant era. Agriculture was the main sustenance and the Tungabhadra was the life blood of the capital city.

Other major rivers that found their course through this land are the Krishna, Kaveri and Godavari. The most prosperous time during the 230 year rule of the empire was during the rule of the Sangama dynasty of which Deva Raya II was the most successful and during its peak under Krishnadevaraya. Progress was made in building of canals, fortifications, water storage tanks (bunds). Trading from the western sea ports with Europeans and Persians was profitable. Sculptures and quarry workers were in demand due to the prolific temple building activities undertaken.

People

Women had been achieving freedom for several centuries and continued the tradition.^[1] Women wore sarees and blouses while men were dressed only in a lower garment, though stitched clothes like shirts were occasional. Turbans, Pethas and Kulavi were popular headgear among the rich. Men wore jewellery just as women did; finger rings, earrings, necklaces, bangles and bracelets were popular. During celebrations, both men and women wore headbands with flowers and perfumes made of sandal wood, rose water, flowers, civet and musk. The discovery of several Game boards engraved onto boulders; sheet rock, temple flooring provide ample evidence of leisure based activities and social interaction at important public places. While many of these games are still played today, many are still to be identified.^[2]

Administration

Governance

In spite of all its glorious achievements in arts and architecture, the empire was essentially a war administration. Every aspect of the governance indicated its sole purpose, that of repulsing Muslim invasion.^[3] As the kingdom expanded, it maintained local traditions in areas annexed into the empire. Thus as a whole, the Hoysala, Kakatiya, Sena and Pandya administrative machinery was adjusted to current needs and retained. The government became more decentralized later with more autonomy given to Nayakas and Palyagars. The kings cabinet was composed of Mahapradhana (Prime minister) and several Pradhanas (ministers). All cabinet ranking officials were military trained and given the title Dandanayaka or Dandanatha. Caste was no bar to rise to high military positions and included officers from the Kuruba, Nayaka and Bedas. Kavyakartha was chief secretary to the king and was also called Rayaswami.^[4]Navigadaprabhu was the naval chief. The use of paper for administrative purposes was popularised, though about 7000 stone and copper plate inscriptions (Shasana) have been discovered. Taxes were levied on all land revenues. Taxes on homes, trader shops, marriage, toddy, salt and even prostitution has been confirmed.

Army

There were two types of armies. The republican guard and the feudatory armies which were expected to contribute in case of war. Krishnadevaraya had a standing army of 100,000 infantry, 20,000 horses and 900 elephants. Artillery was in use.^[5] Some travelogues speak of an infantry of 1.1 million expandable to 2 million.^[6]

Provinces

The empire was divided into Rajya or Mandala. There were six Rajyas each having its own language.^[7]Rajya was divided into Vishaya or Vente or Kottam in different parts of the kingdom, then further divided into Nadu followed by Kampana (or Sthala, a group of villages). The Rajya came under the rule of a member of the royal family or a very high ranking official close to the royal family, their posts being transferable. The feudatories of Madurai Nayaka in Tamil Nadu and Keladi Nayaka in Shimoga came directly under a commander. Hereditary families like the Pandya and the Santharas of South Canara administered their own territories as feudatories. At the village level, the caretaker was a Gowda or a Karanika or Karnam along with a Kavalu (watchman). Important towns were overseen by a Adhikari (mayor). Local village Panchayat were encouraged.

Agriculture and Trade

The Tungabhadra river was the lifeline of the capital. Many elaborate and clever canals and Anecut stored and channelled water to the capital. These canals also lead to the cultivable areas in the fortified city and outside. The features were so advanced that many of the ideas were maintained by the Tungabhadra river authority during their projects in the 1950s. The core area urban communities depended on private tanks, communal tanks and bore wells for water. The royal enclosures had the most sophisticated water distribution and recirculation systems. The main water supply to the royal enclosure came from Kamlapuram. Water pipes sealed in brick and lime plaster were used. Water conservation and recirculation had gained importance in these dry areas. Large tanks providing water for irrigation were called Anecut or Bund. There were several irrigated areas within the fortified city making the fortress very self-sufficient and capable of withstanding long sieges. In the empire, the majority of the people were involved in agriculture growing rice, wheat, ragi, cotton, sugarcane and pulses which were popular. There were plantations growing coconut, Areca and Betel. Portuguese influence brought the growth of onion, tobacco and ground nut into practice. Many large tanks called Bukkasamudram, Vyasasamudram, Krishnarayasagara, Sadashivasagara, Maiviru Magada, Kamalapurasagara, Rayavakaluve, Basavanakaluve were constructed. many people adopted many religions. there are variety of religious structures i.e. stupas monasteries and temples. Industries that prospered were cotton textiles, weaving, carpentry, coir work, sculpting, stone quarrying etc. The prolific temple construction activities undertaken provided employment for thousands. Major exports were jaggery, limestone, textiles, salt, sugar, spices from Malnad, iron ore from Kudremukh, gold from Kolar, Hatti and Raichur, diamonds from Telangana area and rice. Major imports were horses from Persia, artillery and cannons, copper, coral, mercury and salt peter from Europe. While ports were humming on both the western and eastern shores, the most important ports were Mangalore, Barkur, Bhatkal, Honavar from where the empire traded with the Europeans and Persians.

Related Research Articles

Hampi or Hampe, also referred to as the Group of Monuments at Hampi, is a UNESCO World Heritage Site located in Hampi (City), Ballari district now Vijayanagara district, east-central Karnataka, India. Hampi predates the Vijayanagara Empire; it is mentioned in the Ramayana and the Puranas of Hinduism as Pampa Devi Tirtha Kshetra. Hampi continues as a religious centre, with the Virupaksha Temple, an active Adi Shankara-linked monastery and various monuments belonging to the old city.

Vijayanagara was a city at the modern location of Hampi, in the Indian state of Karnataka. Vijayanagara was the capital city of the historic Vijayanagara Empire. Located on the banks of the Tungabhadra River, it spread over a large area and included sites in the Vijayanagara district, the Ballari district, and others around these districts. A part of Vijayanagara ruins known as the Group of Monuments at Hampi has been designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

The Vijayanagara Empire or the Karnata Kingdom was a late medieval Hindu empire that ruled much of southern India. It was established in 1336 by the brothers Harihara I and Bukka Raya I of the Sangama dynasty, belonged to the Yadava clan of Chandravamsa lineage.

Krishnadevaraya was an emperor of the Vijayanagara Empire reigning from 1509 to 1529. He was the third monarch of the Tuluva dynasty, and is considered to be one of the greatest rulers in Indian history. He ruled the largest empire in India after the fall of the Islamic Delhi Sultanate. Presiding over the empire at its zenith, he is regarded as an icon by many Indians. Krishnadevaraya earned the titles Andhra Bhoja, Karnatakaratna Simhasanadeeshwara, Yavana Rajya Pratistapanacharya, Kannada Rajya Rama Ramana, Gaubrahmana Pratipalaka and Mooru Rayara Ganda. He became the dominant ruler of the peninsula by defeating the sultans of Bijapur, Golconda, the Bahmani Sultanate and the Gajapatis of Odisha, and was one of the most powerful Hindu rulers in India.

The Tungabhadra River starts and flows through the state of Karnataka, India, during most of its course, then through Andhra Pradesh, and ultimately joins the Krishna River near Murvakonda in Andhra Pradesh.

Achyuta Deva Raya was an emperor of Vijayanagara who succeeded his older brother, Krishnadevaraya, after the latter's death in 1529 CE.

The Nayaka dynasties refers to a group of Hindu dynasties who emerged during the Kakatiya dynasty and the Vijayanagara Empire period in South India. Many of these dynasties, such as the Madurai Nayaks and the Thanjavur Nayaks, were originally military governors under the Vijayanagara Empire, who, after the Battle of Talikota, declared themselves independent and established their own polities. Many of them were Telugu-speaking Balijas.

The Haridasa Bhakti Sahitya devotional movement (sampradaya) originated in Karnataka, India, after Madhvacharya, and spread to eastern states such as Bengal and Assam of medieval India. Over a span of nearly six centuries, several saints and mystics helped shape the culture, philosophy and art of South India in general and Karnataka in particular by exerting considerable spiritual influence over the masses and kingdoms that ruled South India.

Nayakas of Chitradurga (1588–1779) were an Indian dynasty that ruled parts of eastern Karnataka during the post-Vijayanagara period, centered at Chitradurga. During the rule of the Hoysala Empire and the Vijayanagara Empire, they served as a feudatory chiefdom. Later, after the fall of the Vijayanagara Empire, they ruled at times as an independent chiefdom and at other times as a vassal of the Mysore Kingdom, Mughal Empire and Maratha Empire. Their territories merged into the Kingdom of Mysore under British rule.

Nayakas of Keladi (1499–1763), also known as Nayakas of Bednore and Ikkeri Nayakas, were an Indian dynasty based in Keladi in present-day Shimoga district of Karnataka, India. They were an important ruling dynasty in post-medieval Karnataka. They initially ruled as a vassal of the famous Vijayanagar Empire. After the fall of the empire in 1565, they gained independence and ruled significant parts of Malnad region of the Western Ghats in present-day Karnataka, most areas in the coastal regions of Karnataka and the central plains along the Tungabhadra river. In 1763 AD, with their defeat to Hyder Ali, they were absorbed into the Kingdom of Mysore. They played an important part in the history of Karnataka, during a time of confusion and fragmentation that generally prevailed in South India after the fall of the Vijayanagar Empire. The Keladi rulers were of the Vokkaliga and Banajiga castes and were Veerashaivas by faith. The Haleri Kingdom that ruled over Coorg between 1600 A.D and 1834 A.D. was founded by a member of the Keladi family.

The origin of the Vijayanagara Empire is a controversial topic in South Indian history, with regard to the linguistic affiliation of the founding dynasty, the Sangama family. The Vijayanagara Empire rose to power in southern India in the 14th century CE. Over the past decades historians have expressed differing opinions on whether the empire's founders, Harihara I and Bukka I, were of Kannada people or Telugu origin. There are various opinions about role of the Vidyaranya, the Hindu saint and guru of Harihara I and Bukka I in the founding of the Vijayanagara empire.

Virupaksha Temple is located in Hampi in the Vijayanagara district of Karnataka, India, situated on the banks of the river Tungabhadra, a glorious 7th century temple of Lord Shiva. It is part of the Group of Monuments at Hampi, designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The temple is dedicated to Sri Virupaksha. The temple was built by Lakkan Dandesha, a nayaka (chieftain) under the ruler Deva Raya II, also known as Prauda Deva Raya of the Vijayanagara Empire.

Vijayanagara architecture of 1336–1565 CE was a notable building idiom that developed during the rule of the imperial Hindu Vijayanagara Empire. The empire ruled South India, from their regal capital at Vijayanagara, on the banks of the Tungabhadra River in modern Karnataka, India. The empire built temples, monuments, palaces and other structures across South India, with the largest concentration in its capital. The monuments in and around Hampi, in the Vijayanagara district, are listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Tuluva Narasa Nayaka was an Indian general and later an imperial regent who founded the Tuluva dynasty of the Vijayanagara Empire. He was the father of the emperors Viranarasimha Raya, Krishnadevaraya and Achyuta Deva Raya.

Vira Narasimha Raya became the Emperor of Vijayanagara after the death of his predecessor Narasimha Raya II. He was the older half-brother of Krishnadevaraya.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of Karnataka</span>

The History of Karnataka goes back several millennia. Several great empires and dynasties have ruled over Karnataka and have contributed greatly to the history, culture and development of Karnataka as well as the entire Indian subcontinent. The Chindaka Nagas of central India Gangas, Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta, Chalukyas of Vengi, Yadava Dynasty of Devagiri were all of Kannada origin who later took to encouraging local languages.

Chitradurga Fort, or as the British called it Chitaldoorg, is a fortification that straddles several hills and a peak overlooking a flat valley in the Chitradurga District, Karnataka, India. The fort's name Chitrakaldurga, which means 'picturesque fort' in Kannada, is the namesake of the town Chitradurga and its administrative district.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Political history of medieval Karnataka</span> History of Karnataka region of India

The political history of medieval Karnataka spans the 4th to the 16th centuries in Karnataka region of India. The medieval era spans several periods of time from the earliest native kingdoms and imperialism; the successful domination of the Gangetic plains in northern India and rivalry with the empires of Tamilakam over the Vengi region; and the domination of the southern Deccan and consolidation against Muslim invasion. The origins of the rise of the Karnataka region as an independent power date back to the fourth-century birth of the Kadamba Dynasty of Banavasi which was the earliest of the native rulers to conduct administration in the native language of Kannada in addition to the official Sanskrit.

Anegundi, previously called Kishkindha, is a village in Gangavathi, Koppal district, in the Indian state of Karnataka. It is older than Hampi, situated on the northern bank of the Tungabhadra River. Nimvapuram, a nearby village, has a mount of ash believed to be the cremated remains of the king Vaali.

Suryanath Upendra Kamath was an Indian historian who served as the Chief Editor of the Karnataka State Gazetteer from 1981 to 1995.

References

Dr. Suryanath U. Kamath, Concise history of Karnataka, MCC, Bangalore, 2001 (Reprinted 2002)
Prof K.A. Nilakanta Sastry, History of South India, from Prehistoric Times to the Fall of Vijayanagar, 1955, OUP, New Delhi (Reprinted 2002)
Hampi, A Travel Guide, Department of Tourism, India, Good Earth publication, New Delhi 2003
New Light on Hampi, Recent research in Vijayanagara, edited by John M. Fritz and George Michell, MARG, 2001, ISBN 81-85026-53-X

Notes

↑ In the opinion of Dr. S.A. Saletore, A Concise History of Karnataka pp 179, Dr. S.U. Kamath
↑ In the opinion of Alexandra Mack, New Light on Hampi, Recent research in Vijayanagara, edited by John M. Fritz and George Michell, pp 38
↑ In the opinion of Dr. K.M. Panikkar, A Concise history of Karnataka pp 175-176, Dr. S.U. Kamath
↑ In the opinion of Dr. B.A. Saletore, A Concise history of Karnataka pp 174-177, Dr. S.U. Kamath
↑ In the opinion of Portuguese traveller Barbosa, A Concise History of Karnataka pp 176, Dr. S.U. Kamath
↑ according to Arab traveller Abdur Razzak and Portuguese traveller Paes, A Concise History of Karnataka, pp 176 Dr. S.U. Kamath
↑ In the opinion of Duarte Barbosa while Dr. T.V. Mahalingam claims nine Rajyas, A Concise History of Karnataka, pp 176, Dr. S.U. Kamath