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Tiwanaku is a Pre-Columbian archaeological site in western Bolivia, near Lake Titicaca, about 70 kilometers from La Paz, and it is one of the largest sites in South America. Surface remains currently cover around 4 square kilometers and include decorated ceramics, monumental structures, and megalithic blocks. In AD 800 the site has been conservatively estimated to have been inhabited by 10,000 to 20,000 people.
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Ingavi is a province in the La Paz Department in Bolivia. This is where the Battle of Ingavi occurred on November 18, 1841, and where the World Heritage Site of Tiwanaku is situated.
Isla del Sol is an island in the southern part of Lake Titicaca. It is part of Bolivia, and specifically part of the La Paz Department. Geographically, the terrain is harsh; it is a rocky, hilly island with many eucalyptus trees. There are no motor vehicles or paved roads on the island. The main economic activity of the approximately 800 families on the island is farming, with fishing and tourism augmenting the subsistence economy. Of the several villages, Yumani and Challapampa are the largest.
Puquina is a small, putative language family, often portrayed as a language isolate, which consists of the extinct Puquina language and Kallawaya, although it is assumed that the latter is just a remnant of the former mixed with Quechuan. Puquina speakers are last mentioned in the early nineteenth century.
The Chiripa culture existed between the Initial Period/Early Horizon, from 1400 to 850 BCE along the southern shore of Lake Titicaca in Bolivia.
Johan Reinhard is an American anthropologist and archaeologist. Currently, he is a Research Professor at Future Generations University. formerly Explorer-in-Residence at the National Geographic Society. He is also a senior research fellow at The Mountain Institute, a visiting professor at Catholic University, Salta, Argentina, an honorary professor of Catholic University, Arequipa, Peru.
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Pumapunku or Puma Punku is a 6th-century T-shaped and strategically aligned man-made terraced platform mound with a sunken court and monumental structure on top that is part of the Pumapunku complex, at the Tiwanaku Site near Tiwanacu, in western Bolivia. The Pumapunku complex is an alignment of plazas and ramps centered on the Pumapunku platform mound. Today the monumental complex on top of the platform mound lies in ruins.
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Tiwanaku River or Wakira River is a Bolivian river southeast of Lake Titicaca in the La Paz Department, Ingavi Province, in the municipalities of Guaqui and Tiwanaku, and in the Los Andes Province, Laja Municipality. It empties into Wiñaymarka Lake, the southern part of Lake Titicaca, north of Guaqui (Waki) near the villages of Jawira Pampa and Uma Marka. On its way along the southern slopes of the Taraco range it flows along the archaeological site of Tiwanaku.
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The Tiwanaku Polity was a Pre-Columbian polity in western Bolivia based in the southern Lake Titicaca Basin. Tiwanaku was one of the most significant Andean civilizations. Its influence extended into present-day Peru and Chile and lasted from around 600 to 1000 AD. Its capital was the monumental city of Tiwanaku, located at the center of the polity's core area in the southern Lake Titicaca Basin. This area has clear evidence for large-scale agricultural production on raised fields that probably supported the urban population of the capital. Researchers debate whether these fields were administered by a bureaucratic state (top-down) or through a federation of communities with local autonomy. Tiwanaku was once thought to be an expansive military empire, based mostly on comparisons to the later Inca Empire. However, recent research suggests that labelling Tiwanaku as an empire or even a state may be misleading. Tiwanaku is missing a number of features traditionally used to define archaic states and empires: there is no defensive architecture at any Tiwanaku site or changes in weapon technology, there are no princely burials or other evidence of a ruling dynasty or a formal social hierarchy, no evidence of state-maintained roads or outposts, and no markets.
Alexei Vranich is an American archaeologist specializing in the pre-Columbian South America. His previous positions include Visiting Professor at the University of Warsaw, Poland (2021-22), Lecturer at the Department of Material Sciences at MIT (2021-22), Research Associate, and Assistant Dean at Bowles Hall Residential College (2016-18) at the University of California, Berkeley, Research Associate and Visiting Assistant Professor (2009-2015) at UCLA, and a Lecturer and Research Associate at the University of Pennsylvania from 1999 to 2004. He received his B.A. from the University of California, Berkeley in 1990 and his Ph.D. from the University of Pennsylvania in 1999. He is a Fulbright Scholar and Dumbarton Oaks Harvard Fellow. Vranich is presently teaching and conducting research at the University of Warsaw, Poland.
Carlos Ponce Sanginés was a Bolivian archaeologist and restorer who dedicated a significant part of his life to the study of Tiwanaku.
References
- ↑ McCann 2000, p. 59.
- ↑ Hastorf, Christine A. (1 December 1992). "Preliminary Report on the 1992 excavations at Chiripa, Bolivia by the Taraco Archaeological Project" (PDF). Berkeley, California: Page 1 eScholarship provides open access, scholarly publishing services to the University of California and delivers a dynamic research platform to scholars worldwide. Archaeological Research Facility UC Berkeley. Retrieved 7 November 2015.
- ↑ Bauer & Stanish 2001, p. 283.
- ↑ "Investigadores / Arqueología / Sonia Alconini (Ph D.)" (in Spanish). Saberes Bolivianos. 2011. Retrieved 7 November 2015.
- ↑ Parker & Rodseth 2005, p. 112.
- ↑ "Imperial Marginality and Frontier: Kallawayas and Chunchos in the Eastern Inka Borders". Arlington, Virginia: National Science Foundation. 16 January 2007. Retrieved 7 November 2015.
- ↑ "La presencia Inka en el valle de Charazani, Incallajta y Paria" (in Spanish). La Paz, Bolivia: Periódico Digital de Investigación sobre Bolivia. 3 August 2009. Retrieved 7 November 2015.
- ↑ Killgrove, Kristina (17 May 2015). "Gruesome Evidence Of Political Torture Found On Precolumbian Skulls". Forbes. Jersey City, New Jersey. Retrieved 7 November 2015.
- ↑ "La violencia ritual tuvo un papel crucial en Tiahuanaco" (in Spanish). Guadalajara, Jalisco, Mexico: Informador. 2 November 2013. Retrieved 7 November 2015.
