Tapinotaspidini | |
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Caenonomada unicalcarata (female) | |
Scientific classification ![]() | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Arthropoda |
Class: | Insecta |
Order: | Hymenoptera |
Family: | Apidae |
Subfamily: | Apinae |
Tribe: | Tapinotaspidini Roig-Alsina & Michener, 1993 |
The 'Tapinotaspidini' are a tribe of apid bees. They belong to the order Hymenoptera and the family Apidae. [1] The Tapinotaspidini tribe consists of 180 different species. [2] Many species of Apidae are recognised as oil-collecting bees and Tapinotaspidini possess this oil-collecting behaviour. [1] It is maintained that mutualism exists between oil secreting flowers and oil collecting Tapinotaspidini bees. [3] Morphological and molecular phylogenies have found that the trait of oil-collecting is polyphyletic. [1] Tapinotaspidini are solitary bees which collect oil sources from flowers belonging to the families of Malpighiaceae, Solanaceae, Orchidaceae, Calceolariaceae, Iridaceae, Plantaginaceae, Melastomataceae and Krameriaceae. [1] Tapinotaspidini species differ in terms of being generalist and specialist oil-collectors. [2] Selected species exclusively obtain floral oil from one family of flowering plants, whilst many Tapinotaspidini species employ a range of plant families to fulfil their oil-collecting behaviour. [2]
Tapinotaspidini bees evolved during the Paleocene within a savanna environment resembling the Cerrado with broad grasslands of South America. [2] The ancestral floral host of Tapinotaspidini is deemed to be the flowering plant family of Malpighiaceae which arose 60 million years ago and is regarded as the oldest oil producing plant. [2] Tapinotaspidini began to occupy forested terrain approximatley 30 million years ago. [2] The introduction and interaction with other oil producing plants occurred throughout the Eocene and Miocene eras. [2] This diversification was significant in facilitating an array of habitats for Tapinotaspidini. [2]
Tapinotaspidini possess adapted morphological features which aid its ability to collect oil from flowers. [1] For both male and female oil-collecting bees, this includes the presence of plumose, combs and setae hairs on the sternum and covering the front and middle pairs of legs. [1] Tapinotaspidini bees generally exhibit a body length of approximately 6mm as observed in the genera of Arhysoceble, Lophopedia and Chalepogenus. [3]
Tapinotaspidini bees are geographically distributed across Neotropical region, spanning from northern Argentina, encompassing central Mexico and the Caribbean. [2] Tapinotaspidini are ground-nesting bees, whereby the brood cells are constructed by embedding the structure into soil matter. [2] Males pertaining to the Tapinotaspidini species of Arhysoceble picta reside on the exterior of the flower species Cuphea glutinosa, establishing aggregations over the night period while they sleep. [4] This is feasible for the species of Arhysoceble picta belonging to the Tapinotaspidini tribe, as their integument colouring is comparable to the calyx of the Cuphea glutinosa flower which inhibits them from being predated upon. [4] It is denoted that male Tapinotaspidini species of Chalepogenus muelleri, Lanthanomelissa clementis and Lanthanomelissa discrepans typically sleep on the interior of the flowers which undergo nyctinasty, whereby the petals of the flower close at night. [4] This protects the bees from external weather forces, including rain and wind and maintain a warm temperature via respiratory metabolism. [4]
Tapinotaspidini females are the predominant performers of pollination compared to males. [4] Tapinotaspidini females are identified as oligolectic pollinators to differing species of the genus Sisyrinchium. [4] When Tapinotaspidini have access to plant species of Cuphea glutinosa (Lythraceae), Calibrachoa ovalifolia (Solanaceae), Sisyrichium micranthum, Sisyrichium scariosum,Sisyrichium osteneanum (Iridaceae) and Nothoscordum gracile (Amaryllidaceae), the females of the bee species Lanthanomelissa discrepans belonging to the Tapinotaspidini tribe have been found to interact with Sisyrinchium scariosum for the longest duration of time. [4] Tapinotaspidini males may engage in physcial contact with pollen when they choose a flower to sleep in over night. [4] There is controversy in regards to potential pollination by male Tapinotaspidini. [4] Throughout the diurnal period, Arhysoceble picta (Tapinotaspidini) are considered to consume nectar from flowers in which the transfer of pollen could possibly occur. [4] Male Tapinotaspidini species which sleep inside flowers may be deemed as potential pollinators as grains of pollen that adhered to the individual's body over the night period may be transported, delivering it to a different flower when visiting it the following day. [4] Pollen may also be acquired by males when in contact with a flower, anticipating a mating event. [4]
The flowering plant family Plantaginaceae includes the Angelonia clade. [1] The genera of Caenonomada, Paratetrapedia and Arhysoceble within the Tapinotaspidini tribe have been found to pollinate Angelonia flowers. [1] Angelonia plants have corolla tubes which differ in length whereby some have short length corolla tubes and long lobes and other species have long corolla tubes and short lobes thus, require different methods of pollination. [3] For example, the plant species of A. goyazensis exhibits short tubes and long lobes. It undergoes pollination by the bee species Paratetrapedia punctata within the Tapinotaspidini tribe. [3] The scutellum on the thorax of the bee and the mesoscutum reaches physical contact with the fertile organs of the plant. [3] Due to how the reproductive organs are situated on the flower, pollen adheres to the bee and facilitates pollination by transporting it to other flowers. [3] In comparison, if the flower has deep corolla tubes and short lobes, this requires the bee to insert its entire body into the flower to pick up pollen. [3]
Plant-pollinator specialisation is present between the flower species of Angelonia cornigera and the species of Tapinotaspis nordestina within the Tapinotaspidini tribe. [1] They exhibit the morphological feature of a pair of long legs which extend beyond the other limbs. [1] This biological adaption facilitates oil-collection as the bee is able to retrieve the oil from the oil sacs which are located deep within the flower. [1] However, this adaption is considered to be species specific as it has been denoted that this morphological trait is absent in the genus of Caenonomada yet they also pollinate Angelonia cornigera. [1]
The floral oils are obtained from elaiophores which are the glands in flowers which produce oil. [4] Tapinotaspidini females coat their nest cell wall in floral oils. [1] [3] Females additionally combine the floral oils with pollen as a food source for their larvae. [1] [3] [5] Thus, Tapinotaspidini benefit from the floral oils and support pollination in plants via the transfer of pollen grains. [3] This gives rise to a mutualistic relationship. [3] Moreover, it is recognised that Tapinotaspidini males partake in floral oil-collecting but the rationale behind this is uncertain. [1] [3] [5]
A pollinator is an animal that moves pollen from the male anther of a flower to the female stigma of a flower. This helps to bring about fertilization of the ovules in the flower by the male gametes from the pollen grains.
Pollination is the transfer of pollen from an anther of a plant to the stigma of a plant, later enabling fertilisation and the production of seeds, most often by an animal or by wind. Pollinating agents can be animals such as insects, for example beetles; birds, butterflies, and bats; water; wind; and even plants themselves. Pollinating animals travel from plant to plant carrying pollen on their bodies in a vital interaction that allows the transfer of genetic material critical to the reproductive system of most flowering plants. When self-pollination occurs within a closed flower. Pollination often occurs within a species. When pollination occurs between species, it can produce hybrid offspring in nature and in plant breeding work.
The genus Centris contains circa 250 species of large apid bees occurring in the Neotropical and Nearctic realms, from Kansas to Argentina. Most females of these bees possess adaptations for carrying floral oils rather than pollen or nectar. They mainly visit plants of the family Malpighiaceae to collect oil, but also visit others such as Plantaginaceae, Calceolariaceae, and Krameriaceae. Recent studies have shown they are sister to the corbiculate bees, the most well-known and economically important group of bees
Gundelia is a low to high (20–100 cm) thistle-like perennial herbaceous plant with latex, spiny compound inflorescences, reminiscent of teasles and eryngos, that contain cream, yellow, greenish, pink, purple or redish-purple disk florets. It is assigned to the family Asteraceae. Flowers can be found from February to May. The stems of this plant dry-out when the seeds are ripe and break free from the underground root, and are then blown away like a tumbleweed, thus spreading the seeds effectively over large areas with little standing vegetation. This plant is native to the eastern Mediterranean and the Middle-East. Opinions differ about the number of species in Gundelia. Sometimes the genus is regarded monotypic, Gundelia tournefortii being a species with a large variability, but other authors distinguish up to nine species, differing in floret color and pubescence. Young stems are cooked and eaten in the Middle-East and are said to taste like a combination of artichoke and asparagus. The plant also contains compounds that have been demonstrated to be effective against a range of ailments. A large quantity of pollen assigned to Gundelia has been found on the Shroud of Turin, which may suggest that the crown of thorns was made from Gundelia.
Entomophily or insect pollination is a form of pollination whereby pollen of plants, especially but not only of flowering plants, is distributed by insects. Flowers pollinated by insects typically advertise themselves with bright colours, sometimes with conspicuous patterns leading to rewards of pollen and nectar; they may also have an attractive scent which in some cases mimics insect pheromones. Insect pollinators such as bees have adaptations for their role, such as lapping or sucking mouthparts to take in nectar, and in some species also pollen baskets on their hind legs. This required the coevolution of insects and flowering plants in the development of pollination behaviour by the insects and pollination mechanisms by the flowers, benefiting both groups. Both the size and the density of a population are known to affect pollination and subsequent reproductive performance.
The tribe Euglossini, in the subfamily Apinae, commonly known as orchid bees or euglossine bees, are the only group of corbiculate bees whose non-parasitic members do not all possess eusocial behavior.
Angelonia is a genus of about 30 species which occur from Mexico to Argentina and is classified in the Plantaginaceae. They are herbaceous plants occurring mainly in arid and semi-arid habitats. Most Angelonia species can be found in Northeastern Brazil in the Seasonally Dry Tropical Forest namely Caatinga. The flowers of Angelonia are highly specialized for pollination because they have hairs in the inner corolla, which produces oils collected by oil bee pollinators, especially of the genus Centris.
Xylocopa virginica, sometimes referred to as the eastern carpenter bee, extends through the eastern United States and into Canada. They are sympatric with Xylocopa micans in much of southeastern United States. They nest in various types of wood and eat pollen and nectar. In X. virginica, dominant females do not focus solely on egg-laying, as in other bee species considered to have "queens". Instead, dominant X. virginica females are responsible for a full gamut of activities including reproduction, foraging, and nest construction, whereas subordinate bees may engage in little activity outside of guarding the nest.
Nectar robbing is a foraging behavior utilized by some organisms that feed on floral nectar, carried out by feeding from holes bitten in flowers, rather than by entering through the flowers' natural openings. "Nectar robbers" usually feed in this way, avoiding contact with the floral reproductive structures, and therefore do not facilitate plant reproduction via pollination. Because many species that act as pollinators also act as nectar robbers, nectar robbing is considered to be a form of exploitation of plant-pollinator mutualism. While there is variation in the dependency on nectar for robber species, most species rob facultatively.
Macropis is a genus of bees in the family Melittidae.
Peponapis pruinosa is a species of solitary bee in the tribe Eucerini, the long-horned bees. Its common name is the eastern cucurbit bee. It may be called the squash bee, but this name can also apply to other species in its genus, as well as the other squash bee genus, Xenoglossa. This bee occurs in North America from the East Coast of the United States to the West Coast and into Mexico. It is an oligolege, specializing on a few host plants, the squashes and gourds of genus Cucurbita. Its range expanded as human agriculture spread throughout North America and squash plants became more abundant and widespread. It may also have spread naturally as the range of its favored wild host plant Cucurbita foetidissima expanded.
Pollination traps or trap-flowers are plant flower structures that aid the trapping of insects, mainly flies, so as to enhance their effectiveness in pollination. The structures of pollination traps can include deep tubular corollas with downward pointing hairs, slippery surfaces, adhesive liquid, attractants, flower closing and other mechanisms.
Ptilothrix is a genus within the tribe Emphorini of the family Apidae. Bees of this genus can range from 7 to 15 mm. Ptilothrix species are solitary, ground-nesting bees. These bees have especially prominent hairs in the scopae of their hind legs, to help gather pollen to provision their nests. Ptilothrix species specialize on certain families of plants for their pollen, including the families Malvaceae, Convolvulaceae, Onagraceae, Cactaceae, Pontederiaceae, and Asteraceae. The genus is found in the New World, with species ranging across the Americas.
Euglossa cordata is a primitively eusocial orchid bee of the American tropics. The species is known for its green body color and ability to fly distances of over 50 km. Males mostly disperse and leave their home nests, while females have been observed to possess philopatric behavior. Because of this, sightings are rare and little is known about the species. However, it has been observed that adults who pollinate certain species of orchids will become intoxicated during the pollination.
Eufriesea surinamensis belongs to the tribe of euglossine bees and as such is a species of orchid bee. This should not be mistaken with the species group surinamensis, which includes Ef. surinamensis among other Eufriesea species.
Macropis nuda is a ground nesting, univoltine bee native to northern parts of North America. Thus, this species cocoons as pupae and hibernates over the winter. The species is unusual as it is an oligolectic bee, foraging exclusively for floral oils and pollen from Primulaceae of the species Lysimachia ciliata.
Centris analis is a solitary, oil-collecting bee with a geographical range extending from Brazil to Mexico. C. analis is a small, fast-flying bee with an average head width of 3.21mm and 3.54mm for males and females, respectively. While most species of the genus Centris create burrows for nesting, C. analis and other species of the subgenus Heterocentris build nests in pre-existing cavities rather than in the ground. C. analis is a pollinator of many plant species, especially of those in the family Malpighiaceae, which has encouraged its application in acerola orchards.
Pollen theft, also known as pollen robbery or floral larceny, occurs when an animal actively eats or collects pollen from a plant species but provides little or no pollination in return. Pollen theft was named as a concept at least as early as the 1980, and examples have been documented well before that. For example, native honey bees were documented 'stealing' large amounts of pollen from the large, bat-pollinated flowers of Parkia clappertoniana in Ghana in the 1950s. Nevertheless, pollen theft has typically received far less research attention than nectar robbing, despite the more direct consequences on plant reproduction.
The pollination of orchids is a complex chapter in the biology of this family of plants that are distinguished by the complexity of their flowers and by intricate ecological interactions with their pollinator agents. It has captured the attention of numerous scientists over time, including Charles Darwin, father of the theory of evolution by natural selection. Darwin published in 1862 the first observations of the fundamental role of insects in orchid pollination, in his book The Fertilization of Orchids. Darwin stated that the varied stratagems orchids use to attract their pollinators transcend the imagination of any human being.
The genus Chalepogenus, consisting of 21 species of solitary oil-collecting apid bees, demonstrates oligolecty by foraging on oil-producing flowers from the families Calceolariaceae, Iridaceae and Solanaceae. These oil-flowers are abundant in South America, where Chalepogenus is endemic. In contrast to honey bees, Chalepogenus species do not collect nectar; instead, they gather floral oil for various purposes, including provisioning their larvae, constructing nests, and sustaining foraging adult bees. Although oil collection has been reported to be performed by females only, both males and females have specialised oil-collecting structures.