Unsecured debt

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In finance, unsecured debt refers to any type of debt or general obligation that is not protected by a guarantor, or collateralized by a lien on specific assets of the borrower in the case of a bankruptcy or liquidation or failure to meet the terms for repayment. [1] Unsecured debts are sometimes called signature debt or personal loans. [2] These differ from secured debt such as a mortgage, which is backed by a piece of real estate.

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In the event of the bankruptcy of the borrower, the unsecured creditors have a general claim on the assets of the borrower after the specific pledged assets have been assigned to the secured creditors. The unsecured creditors usually realize a smaller proportion of their claims than the secured creditors.

In some legal systems, unsecured creditors who are also indebted to the insolvent debtor are able (and, in some jurisdictions, required) to set off the debts, so actually putting the unsecured creditor with a matured liability to the debtor in a pre-preferential position.

Under risk-based pricing, creditors tend to demand extremely high interest rates as a condition of extending unsecured debt. The maximum loss on a properly collateralized loan is the difference between the fair market value of the collateral and the outstanding debt. Thus, in the context of secured lending, the use of collateral reduces the size of the "bet" taken by the creditor on the debtor's creditworthiness. Without collateral, the creditor stands to lose the entire sum outstanding at the point of default and must boost the interest rate to price in that risk. Hence, although sufficiently high interest rates are considered usurious, unsecured loans would not be made at all without them.

Unsecured loans are often sought out if additional capital is required although existing (but not necessarily all) assets have been pledged to secure prior debt. Secured lenders more often than not include language in the loan agreement that prevents debtor from assuming additional secured loans or pledging any assets to a creditor.

Examples of unsecured debt

Types of unsecured debt

  1. Corporate unsecured debt – Since this type of debt assumes a greater amount of risk, corporations that have lower bond ratings (such as BBB) are classified as unsecured debt due to their higher default risk. [3]
  2. Personal loan – A personal loan is a loan which can be taken to meet unspecified financial needs, such as a wedding, travel, or medical emergencies. [1] The interest paid on a personal loan is in most cases higher than that payable on secured loans. [4]
  3. Consumer durable loan – In the retail sector or e-commerce, a growing number of merchants have embraced point-of-sale financing. It is commonly called consumer finance. On the spot no-cost EMI option is given. Even though, as per the rules and regulations of specific countries, there can never be no cost EMI option. Any lending institute is bound to take interest in some form or the other from you.
  4. Student loans – This common type of debt is considered unsecured in many countries, because the loan is usually taken by a student (usually at graduate or undergraduate level) or the student's parent or legal guardian to pay tuition fees. The borrower is usually expected to pay back the loan after completing the course and securing a job, and because this is uncertain, lenders have very strict criteria for this product. The loan is only given after the lender assesses the student's academic record, the type of course the student is wishing to pursue and the quality of the university / institute where the student has secured admission for the aforementioned course, in addition to other standard criteria such as the guarantor's credit history, bank account statements, assets and holdings, etc. However, in rare cases, the borrower (usually a parent / legal guardian) of the student can pledge assets against the loan, thereby making it a secured loan. In recent times, a lot of salaried professionals also take loans to complete part time courses or certifications. In such cases however, the loan is not considered to be a student loan – it is simply categorized as a general personal loan.

National differences

United States

Failure to make a payment on an unsecured debt may ultimately result in reporting the delinquent debt to a credit reporting agency or legal action. However, a nongovernmental unsecured creditor cannot seize any of your assets without a court judgment in the U.S.

A creditor must file a complaint in state or federal court before a judgment can be made for or against the borrower.

UK

Unsecured loans in the UK are a form of credit that doesn't require collateral, such as property or other assets, to back the loan. This makes them a popular choice for borrowers who may not have assets to secure against a loan or prefer not to risk their assets. Unsecured loans are primarily based on the borrower's creditworthiness, with lenders evaluating credit history, income, and financial stability to determine eligibility. Interest rates for these loans can vary widely depending on the lender and the borrower's credit score. While unsecured loans offer the convenience of borrowing without collateral, they typically come with higher interest rates compared to secured loans, reflecting the increased risk for the lender. They are commonly used for various purposes, including debt consolidation, home improvements, or covering unexpected expenses. It's important for borrowers to carefully consider their ability to repay an unsecured loan, as failure to do so can significantly impact their credit score and financial health. [5]

Malaysia

In Malaysia, there are personal loans for the private sector and for the government sector. The personal loan interest rate for the private sector is always higher than the government sector because it is of lower risk for the bank to lend to the government sector. The government will pay the salary of the civil servants through a payroll system known as the Biro Angkasa and the bank will deduct the monthly installment of the loan from the civil servant's salary through this system, before the salary is even released. An example of these loans are cooperative loans.

Interest rates for personal loans in Malaysia are influenced by either one of these factors: loan amount, loan tenure and income of the applicant. In some cases, the bank will take 2 or even 3 of these factors to decide on the appropriate interest rate to be applied to the personal loan. In 2013, the Malaysian Central Bank introduces a new maximum loan tenure of 10 years for personal loan (previous maximum loan tenure was 25 years). [6]

Singapore

In Singapore, unsecured credit, including credit card debt and personal loans, can carry high interest rates due to the lack of collateral. To safeguard borrowers from excessive debt accumulation, the Monetary Authority of Singapore (MAS) has implemented measures effective since January 1, 2018. These rules cap additional unsecured credit for borrowers whose outstanding debts exceed six times their monthly income, with a total credit limit not exceeding 12 times their monthly income.

The borrowing limit, set industry-wide, aims to prevent long-term reliance on unsecured credit and reduce debt accumulation. Banks must conduct credit bureau checks before granting new credit facilities or credit limit increases, ensuring loans align with borrowers' ability to repay. To manage debt effectively, borrowers can explore debt repayment plans and debt consolidation options. Understanding the rules and regulations can help borrowers maintain financial stability and make informed borrowing decisions in Singapore. [7]

See also

Related Research Articles

In finance, default is failure to meet the legal obligations of a loan, for example when a home buyer fails to make a mortgage payment, or when a corporation or government fails to pay a bond which has reached maturity. A national or sovereign default is the failure or refusal of a government to repay its national debt.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Debt</span> Obligation to pay borrowed money

Debt is an obligation that requires one party, the debtor, to pay money borrowed or otherwise withheld from another party, the creditor. Debt may be owed by sovereign state or country, local government, company, or an individual. Commercial debt is generally subject to contractual terms regarding the amount and timing of repayments of principal and interest. Loans, bonds, notes, and mortgages are all types of debt. In financial accounting, debt is a type of financial transaction, as distinct from equity.

In corporate finance, a debenture is a medium- to long-term debt instrument used by large companies to borrow money, at a fixed rate of interest. The legal term "debenture" originally referred to a document that either creates a debt or acknowledges it, but in some countries the term is now used interchangeably with bond, loan stock or note. A debenture is thus like a certificate of loan or a loan bond evidencing the company's liability to pay a specified amount with interest. Although the money raised by the debentures becomes a part of the company's capital structure, it does not become share capital. Senior debentures get paid before subordinate debentures, and there are varying rates of risk and payoff for these categories.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Loan</span> Lending of money

In finance, a loan is the transfer of money by one party to another with an agreement to pay it back. The recipient, or borrower, incurs a debt and is usually required to pay interest for the use of the money.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Debt consolidation</span> Form of debt refinancing

Debt consolidation is a form of debt refinancing that entails taking out one loan to pay off many others. This commonly refers to a personal finance process of individuals addressing high consumer debt, but occasionally it can also refer to a country's fiscal approach to consolidate corporate debt or government debt. The process can secure a lower overall interest rate to the entire debt load and provide the convenience of servicing only one loan or debt. Debt consolidation is sometimes offered by loan sharks, who charge clients exorbitant interest rates. Further regulation has been discussed as a result.

Credit risk is the possibility of losing a lender holds due to a risk of default on a debt that may arise from a borrower failing to make required payments. In the first resort, the risk is that of the lender and includes lost principal and interest, disruption to cash flows, and increased collection costs. The loss may be complete or partial. In an efficient market, higher levels of credit risk will be associated with higher borrowing costs. Because of this, measures of borrowing costs such as yield spreads can be used to infer credit risk levels based on assessments by market participants.

A creditor or lender is a party that has a claim on the services of a second party. It is a person or institution to whom money is owed. The first party, in general, has provided some property or service to the second party under the assumption that the second party will return an equivalent property and service. The second party is frequently called a debtor or borrower. The first party is called the creditor, which is the lender of property, service, or money.

Asset-based lending is any kind of lending secured by an asset. This means, if the loan is not repaid, the asset is taken. In this sense, a mortgage is an example of an asset-based loan. More commonly however, the phrase is used to describe lending to business and large corporations using assets not normally used in other loans. Typically, the different types of asset-based loans include accounts receivable financing, inventory financing, equipment financing, or real estate financing. Asset-based lending in this more specific sense is possible only in certain countries whose legal systems allow borrowers to pledge such assets to lenders as collateral for loans.

Hypothec, sometimes tacit hypothec, is a term used in civil law systems or to refer to a registered real security of a creditor over real estate, but under some jurisdictions it may additionally cover ships only, as opposed to other collaterals, including corporeal movables other than ships, securities or intangible assets such intellectual property rights, covered by a different type of right (pledge). Common law has two main equivalents to the term: mortgages and non-possessory lien.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Collateral (finance)</span> Borrowers pledge of property to a lender to be owed if a loan cant be repaid

In lending agreements, collateral is a borrower's pledge of specific property to a lender, to secure repayment of a loan. The collateral serves as a lender's protection against a borrower's default and so can be used to offset the loan if the borrower fails to pay the principal and interest satisfactorily under the terms of the lending agreement.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Credit</span> Financial term for the trust between parties in transactions with a deferred payment

Credit is the trust which allows one party to provide money or resources to another party wherein the second party does not reimburse the first party immediately, but promises either to repay or return those resources at a later date. The resources provided by the first party can be either property, fulfillment of promises, or performances. In other words, credit is a method of making reciprocity formal, legally enforceable, and extensible to a large group of unrelated people.

In finance, a security interest is a legal right granted by a debtor to a creditor over the debtor's property which enables the creditor to have recourse to the property if the debtor defaults in making payment or otherwise performing the secured obligations. One of the most common examples of a security interest is a mortgage: a person borrows money from the bank to buy a house, and they grant a mortgage over the house so that if they default in repaying the loan, the bank can sell the house and apply the proceeds to the outstanding loan.

Secured transactions in the United States are an important part of the law and economy of the country. By enabling lenders to take a security interest in collateral, the law of secured transactions provides lenders with assurance of legal relief in case of default by the borrower. The availability of such remedies encourages lenders to lend capital at lower interest rates, which in turn facilitates the free flow of credit and stimulates economic growth.

A secured loan is a loan in which the borrower pledges some asset as collateral for the loan, which then becomes a secured debt owed to the creditor who gives the loan. The debt is thus secured against the collateral, and if the borrower defaults, the creditor takes possession of the asset used as collateral and may sell it to regain some or all of the amount originally loaned to the borrower. An example is the foreclosure of a home. From the creditor's perspective, that is a category of debt in which a lender has been granted a portion of the bundle of rights to specified property. If the sale of the collateral does not raise enough money to pay off the debt, the creditor can often obtain a deficiency judgment against the borrower for the remaining amount.

A line of credit is a credit facility extended by a bank or other financial institution to a government, business or individual customer that enables the customer to draw on the facility when the customer needs funds. A financial institution makes available an amount of credit to a business or consumer during a specified period of time.

The vast majority of all second lien loans are senior secured obligations of the borrower. Second lien loans differ from both unsecured debt and subordinated debt.

A secured transaction is a loan or a credit transaction in which the lender acquires a security interest in collateral owned by the borrower and is entitled to foreclose on or repossess the collateral in the event of the borrower's default. The terms of the relationship are governed by a contract, or security agreement. In the United States, secured transactions in personal property are governed by Article 9 of the Uniform Commercial Code (U.C.C.).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mortgage</span> Loan secured using real estate

A mortgage loan or simply mortgage, in civil law jurisdictions known also as a hypothec loan, is a loan used either by purchasers of real property to raise funds to buy real estate, or by existing property owners to raise funds for any purpose while putting a lien on the property being mortgaged. The loan is "secured" on the borrower's property through a process known as mortgage origination. This means that a legal mechanism is put into place which allows the lender to take possession and sell the secured property to pay off the loan in the event the borrower defaults on the loan or otherwise fails to abide by its terms. The word mortgage is derived from a Law French term used in Britain in the Middle Ages meaning "death pledge" and refers to the pledge ending (dying) when either the obligation is fulfilled or the property is taken through foreclosure. A mortgage can also be described as "a borrower giving consideration in the form of a collateral for a benefit (loan)".

A guarantor loan is a type of unsecured loan that requires a guarantor to co-sign the credit agreement. A guarantor is a person who agrees to repay the borrower’s debt should the borrower default on agreed repayments. The guarantor is often a family member or trusted friend who has a better credit history than the person taking out the loan and the arrangement is, therefore, viewed as less risky by the lender. A guarantor loan can, consequently, enable someone to borrow either more money, or the same amount at a lower rate of interest, than they would otherwise be able to secure through a more traditional type of loan.

A business loan is a loan specifically intended for business purposes. As with all loans, it involves the creation of a debt, which will be repaid with added interest. There are a number of different types of business loans, including bank loans, mezzanine financing, asset-based financing, invoice financing, microloans, business cash advances and cash flow loans.

References

  1. 1 2 "UNSECURED LOAN | meaning in the Cambridge English Dictionary". dictionary.cambridge.org. Retrieved 2020-08-09.
  2. ↑ Kagan, Julia. "Signature Loan". Investopedia. Retrieved 2020-08-09.
  3. ↑ Jason Fernando (2005-11-03). "Unsecured Debt". Investopedia. Retrieved 2018-07-26.
  4. ↑ Dubey, Navneet. "How to apply for a personal loan?". The Economic Times.
  5. ↑ "What Is An Unsecured Personal Loan?". creditspring.co.uk.
  6. ↑ "Measures to Further Promote a Sound and Sustainable Household Sector". BNM.gov.my.
  7. ↑ "How Unsecured Debt is Treated in Singapore". Unsecured Debt in Singapore. Retrieved July 31, 2023.
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