Verbal aggression

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Ali Akbar Salehi using verbal aggression against protesters Protests against JCPOA during Ali Akbar Salehi speech in the Parliament.jpg
Ali Akbar Salehi using verbal aggression against protesters

Verbal aggressiveness in communication has been studied to examine the underlying message of how the aggressive communicator gains control over different things that occur, through the usage of verbal aggressiveness. Scholars have identified that individuals who express verbal aggressiveness have the goal of controlling and manipulating others through language. Infante and Wigley defined verbal aggressiveness as "a personality trait that predisposes persons to attack the self-concepts of other people instead of, or in addition to, their positions on topics of communication". [1] Self-concept can be described as a group of values and beliefs that one has. Verbal aggressiveness is thought to be mainly a destructive form of communication, but it can produce positive outcomes. Infante and Wigley described aggressive behavior in interpersonal communication as products of individual's aggressive traits and the way the person perceives the aggressive circumstances that prevents them or something in a situation.

Contents

Infante, Trebing, Shepard, and Seeds collaborated to showcase the relationship between argumentativeness and verbal aggression. The study investigated two things. The first component investigated whether high, moderate, or low behaviors differ in how easily they are caused by an opponent that selects verbally aggressive responses. The second focused on whether different sexes display different levels of verbal aggression. The results concluded that people who scored high on argumentativeness were the least likely to prefer verbal aggression. [2] [3] Argumentativeness is a constructive, positive trait that recognizes different positions which might exist on issues that are controversial. [4] As for the difference between sexes, males are more likely than females to use verbal aggression because males have been conditioned to be more dominant and competitive.

The Verbal Aggressiveness Scale measures the personality trait of verbal aggressiveness and has been widely used in communication research. [1] The VAS has 20 items, 10 that are 10-worded negatively/aggressively, and 10 worded positively/kindly. Infante and Wigley's scale is often scored as unidimensional. [5]

Types of messages

[ citation needed ]

Reasons or causes

There are four primary reasons or causes suggested by Infante, Trebing, Shepard, and Seeds, which are:

These motivators of verbal aggressiveness contribute to an individual with a verbally aggressive personality trait. [6]

More recently Shaw, Kotowski, Boster, and Levine demonstrated that verbal aggression may be caused by variation in prenatal testosterone exposure. [7] They conducted two studies in which they measured the length of the second and fourth digits (2D:4D) on each hand of participants, an indicator of amount of prenatal androgen exposure, and conducted a questionnaire to determine the verbal aggressiveness of participants. A negative correlation between 2D:4D and verbal aggressiveness was determined. [6]

Effects

Self-concept damage is the most fundamental effect, which can cause long lasting and more harmful results than the temporal effects. The more temporal and short term effects are: hurt feelings, anger, irritation, embarrassment, discouragement, humiliation, despair, and depression. Verbal aggressiveness that harms an individual's self-concept can follow an individual throughout their life. For instance, Infante and Wigley state "the self-concept damage done by teasing a child about an aspect of physical appearance can endure for a lifetime and exert an enormous impact on the amount of unhappiness experience". [8] Verbal aggressiveness is also a major cause of violence. When verbal aggressiveness escalates, it can lead to physical violence. [9]

Constructive

The constructive traits which produce satisfaction and increase relationship contentment by helping to increase understandings between the different positions are assertiveness and argumentativeness. Assertiveness is often confused with aggressiveness, but assertive individuals often possess traits like dominance, independence, and competitiveness. Infante and Rancer define argumentativeness as the "trait-like behavior that predisposes an individual to take a stand on controversial issues and attack the positions that other people take". [10] Argumentative individuals focus on the topic rather than attacking an individual. Productive argumentativeness can produce positive outcomes in communication through challenging and defending standpoints through justification. This allows for reasoning between individuals to resolve issue and terminate the disagreement. Argumentative encounters such as this have a positive correlation to relational satisfaction. [11]

Destructive

The destructive traits, hostility and verbal aggressiveness, lead to dissatisfaction in communication and relationship deterioration. Destructive verbal aggressiveness is used for revenge, teasing, and to manipulate others. Verbal aggressiveness is destructive and links to the hostility trait. Unlike argumentativeness, verbal aggressiveness is focused on defending one's identity and attacking others; not trying to resolve the dispute but instead attacking individuals self-concept. Also, verbally aggressive individuals often do not provide as much evidence to support their standpoint. In many cases these individuals possess verbally aggressive traits because they lack the skills to argue rationally and effectively, and therefore use verbally aggressive messages as their defense mechanism. Individuals with argumentative skill deficiency often see violence as their only alternative. These aggressive tactics cause a digression by using personal attacks which do not allow for the disagreement to ever be resolved. [11]

In romantic relationships

The manner in which conflicts are dealt with in romantic relationships differ among each partnership. There are numerous concepts, qualities, and traits that predict the verbal aggressiveness of each partner within a romantic relationship. How couples deal with arguments and controversy has been a major topic amongst researchers for many years. When resolving a dispute is the objective amongst a couple, each individual's argumentative traits come into play. The way in which couples engage and act during a discrepancy can play a chief role in the satisfaction of each partner.

Verbal aggressiveness often results in deterioration of relational satisfaction. Romantically involved couples can perceive verbally aggressive messages as unaffectionate communication. Infante and et al. found that "an act of verbal aggression produces a negative emotional reaction (e.g., anger); the negative reaction can remain covert, leaving a trace effect that can combine additively with subsequent verbal aggression. If the effect if not dissipated through some means, it can lead to the formation of intentions to behave with physical aggression toward the origin or perceived origin of the verbal aggression". [12] Verbal aggressiveness is impacted by the commitment levels of the partners in a relationship. Research findings have shown a negative correlation between commitment and destructive confrontation, and also commitment and communicative acts of abuse. [13]

The arguments that occur between romantic partners play a crucial role in the quality and course of relationships. Arguing successfully means, at least in some part, that a couple will avoid unwarranted negativity and approach discrepancies in confidence that discussing dissimilarities of opinion will supply positive results. Many couples refocus the argument and attack the other partner rather than staying on track with the differences of opinion on a subject. Unhappily married couples tend to use a more destructive approach to conflict. Verbal aggressiveness is resorted to in conflict and controversy. Infante and et al. found that in violent marriages more character attacks and competence attacks are used during disputes. Happily married couples were more likely to resolve disputes without the use of verbally aggressive messages, using instead argumentativeness to negotiate an agreement. [12]

In families

Communication between parents and children influences children and can have important effects for the well-being of the child. It can also have important influences on the relationship between the child and the parent. Muris, Meesters, Morren, and Moorman found that, "attachment style and perceived parent rearing styles that included low levels of emotional warmth were more likely to result in anger and hostility in children". [14] Also, Riesch, Anderson, and Krueger argued that "parent-child communication can help reduce risk behaviors through individual risk factors such as self-esteem, academic achievement, and parental involvement in monitoring". [15] Knapp, Stafford, and Daly stated, "verbally aggressive behavior is contextual: most parents likely have said something verbally aggressive to their child at some point, even if they later regretted doing so". [16]

The parental use of verbal aggressiveness can cause a disruption in the relationship between the child and the parent. When a parent uses verbally aggressive behavior children are often frightened, which leads to avoidance of the parent. The verbal aggressiveness causes the child to feel fear and anxiety and therefore the child loses trust in their relationship. Parental verbal aggressiveness has a negative correlation with relational satisfaction and closeness to their children. Studies found that parents who are verbally aggressive tend to have children who are also verbally aggressive. This is proven through Bandura's social learning theory. Children who are consistently around their parents are likely to model their behavior. [17]

According to the attachment theory, all humans are dependent on one or several individuals during the early years of their lives. It is important to understand how a parent's verbal aggressiveness can change the attachment style the child has toward the parent. [18] If a parent is shown as attacking a child's self-image, it is likely that these attacks will hinder the growth of a confident attachment style. Styron and Janoff-Bulman found, "more than 60% of participants who had been verbally abused as children had reported an insecure attachment style". [19]

Authoritative parents are characterized by encouraging and democratic behaviors. These types of parents value verbal "give-and-take." Authoritarian parents prefer punishment as a way to control their child's behavior and they value obedience from their children. Parents low in verbal aggression tend to adopt an authoritative parenting style and that is positively related to a secure attachment style. [20]

In athletics

Simulated verbal abuse in combat sports promotions is common Punk and Bryan.jpg
Simulated verbal abuse in combat sports promotions is common

Communication plays a significant role in the athlete-coach relationship. [21] Verbal aggression has been identified as prominent in athletics. Coaches who exhibit verbal aggressive behavior may influence athletes' performance, competence, overall enjoyment, and motivation. Symrpas and Bekiari conducted a study that was aimed to determine two things. The first one was to explore the perceived leadership style and verbal aggressive profile of coaches. The second was to look for differences in athletes' satisfaction and achievement goal orientation based on perceived coaches' leadership style and verbal aggressive profile. [21]

The study supported two profiles of coaches. The first profile included coaches who present a low autocratic (harsh) behavior, high democratic (fair) behavior, and low verbal aggressive behavior. The second profile included coaches who present a high autocratic, low democratic, and high verbal aggressive behavior. Based upon the results, coaches categorized within the first profile promoted athletes' satisfaction where their mental state was filled with compassion. Athletes who are more task-oriented that perform tasks to achieve their desired outcome, considered that their coaches belong to the first profile which did not impact their performance in a negative way.

In customer service

Customer incivility can be described as verbal aggression towards customer service employees. It can negatively impact customer service perceptions and potentially crumble an organization's competitive status. Today, customer incivility is known as customer verbal aggression towards employees through language content and communication style. Customer verbal aggression can happen in places such as restaurants, retail stores, banks, etc.

Walker, Jaarsveld, and Skarlicki performed a study that focused on developing an understanding of what customers do in service events that can increase employee incivility toward others. Employee incivility has four total factors involved: aggressive words, second person pronoun use (you, your), interruptions, and positive emotion words. Positive associations between customer aggressive words and employee incivility was clear when verbal aggression included second person pronouns, labeled as targeted aggression. [22] The researchers observed interactions that included two people between targeted aggression and customer interruptions where employees demonstrated more offensive language when the targeted customer verbal aggression was followed by more interruptions. The 2-way interactions predicting employee incivility was lessened when customers used positive emotion words. Saying something like, "I know you charged me twice, but we can try to work this out together", is an example. The results suggested that customer verbal aggression consumes employees, leading to self-regulation failure. The customer using positive emotional language increases the ability of the employee to engage in self-regulation and reduce incivility.

Self-regulation is important with interactions in the workplace. To communicate effectively in social environments while helping customers, the key objective must be emotional labor. Emotional labor is the self-regulatory process that unfolds over the course of customer interactions, with employees monitoring and adjusting their felt and expressed emotion. [23] A goal in which employees use during emotional labor is to produce effective and emotional displays that enhance the customer experience. The self-regulatory approach provides insight into how felt emotions, displayed emotions, and emotion regulation may relate to each other over time. [24]

See also

Related Research Articles

Emotional intelligence (EI) is defined as the ability to perceive, use, understand, manage, and handle emotions. People with high emotional intelligence can recognize their own emotions and those of others, use emotional information to guide thinking and behavior, discern between different feelings and label them appropriately, and adjust emotions to adapt to environments.

In social psychology, an interpersonal relation describes a social association, connection, or affiliation between two or more persons. It overlaps significantly with the concept of social relations, which are the fundamental unit of analysis within the social sciences. Relations vary in degrees of intimacy, self-disclosure, duration, reciprocity, and power distribution. The main themes or trends of the interpersonal relations are: family, kinship, friendship, love, marriage, business, employment, clubs, neighborhoods, ethical values, support and solidarity. Interpersonal relations may be regulated by law, custom, or mutual agreement, and form the basis of social groups and societies. They appear when people communicate or act with each other within specific social contexts, and they thrive on equitable and reciprocal compromises.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Jealousy</span> Emotion

Jealousy generally refers to the thoughts or feelings of insecurity, fear, and concern over a relative lack of possessions or safety.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Job satisfaction</span> Attitude of a person towards work

Job satisfaction, employee satisfaction or work satisfaction is a measure of workers' contentment with their job, whether they like the job or individual aspects or facets of jobs, such as nature of work or supervision. Job satisfaction can be measured in cognitive (evaluative), affective, and behavioral components. Researchers have also noted that job satisfaction measures vary in the extent to which they measure feelings about the job. or cognitions about the job.

Psychological abuse, often called emotional abuse, is a form of abuse characterized by a person subjecting or exposing another person to a behavior that may result in psychological trauma, including anxiety, chronic depression, or post-traumatic stress disorder.

Silent treatment is the refusal to communicate verbally and electronically with someone who is trying to communicate and elicit a response. It may range from just sulking to malevolent abusive controlling behaviour. It may be a passive-aggressive form of emotional abuse in which displeasure, disapproval and contempt is exhibited through nonverbal gestures while maintaining verbal silence. Clinical psychologist Harriet Braiker identifies it as a form of manipulative punishment. It may be used as a form of social rejection; according to the social psychologist Kipling Williams, it is the most common form of ostracism.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Social behavior</span> Behavior among two or more organisms within the same species

Social behavior is behavior among two or more organisms within the same species, and encompasses any behavior in which one member affects the other. This is due to an interaction among those members. Social behavior can be seen as similar to an exchange of goods, with the expectation that when you give, you will receive the same. This behavior can be affected by both the qualities of the individual and the environmental (situational) factors. Therefore, social behavior arises as a result of an interaction between the two—the organism and its environment. This means that, in regards to humans, social behavior can be determined by both the individual characteristics of the person, and the situation they are in.

Verbal abuse is a type of psychological/mental abuse that involves the use of oral, gestured, and written language directed to a victim. Verbal abuse can include the act of harassing, labeling, insulting, scolding, rebuking, or excessive yelling towards an individual. It can also include the use of derogatory terms, the delivery of statements intended to frighten, humiliate, denigrate, or belittle a person. These kinds of attacks may result in mental and/or emotional distress for the victim.

Emotion dysregulation is a range of emotional responses that do not lie within a desirable scope of emotive response, considering the stimuli.

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Parenting styles</span> Psychological construct

A parenting style is a pattern of behaviors, attitudes, and approaches that a parent uses when interacting with and raising their child. The study of parenting styles is based on the idea that parents differ in their patterns of parenting and that these patterns can have a significant impact on their children's development and well-being. Parenting styles are distinct from specific parenting practices, since they represent broader patterns of practices and attitudes that create an emotional climate for the child. Parenting styles also encompass the ways in which parents respond to and make demands on their children.

Communicative behaviors are psychological constructs that influence individual differences in expressing feelings, needs, and thoughts as a substitute for more direct and open communication. More specifically, communicative behaviors refer to people's tendency to express themselves using indirect messages. Much of our communication is, in fact, non-verbal.

Workplace aggression is a specific type of aggression which occurs in the workplace. Workplace aggression is any type of hostile behavior that occurs in the workplace. It can range from verbal insults and threats to physical violence, and it can occur between coworkers, supervisors, and subordinates. Common examples of workplace aggression include gossiping, bullying, intimidation, sabotage, sexual harassment, and physical violence. These behaviors can have serious consequences, including reduced productivity, increased stress, and decreased morale.

Counterproductive work behavior (CWB) is employee's behavior that goes against the legitimate interests of an organization. This behavior can harm the organization, other people within it, and other people and organizations outside it, including employers, other employees, suppliers, clients, patients and citizens. It has been proposed that a person-by-environment interaction (the relationship between a person's psychological and physical capacities and the demands placed on those capacities by the person's social and physical environment.) can be utilized to explain a variety of counterproductive behaviors. For instance, an employee who is high on trait anger is more likely to respond to a stressful incident at work with CWB.

The effects of domestic violence on children have a tremendous impact on the well-being and developmental growth of children witnessing it. Children who witness domestic violence in the home often believe that they are to blame, live in a constant state of fear, and are 15 times more likely to be victims of child abuse. Close observation during an interaction can alert providers to the need for further investigation and intervention, such as dysfunctions in the physical, behavioral, emotional, and social areas of life, and can aid in early intervention and assistance for child victims.

Verbal self-defense or verbal aikido is the art of using one's words to prevent, de-escalate, or end an attempted assault.

Workplace incivility has been defined as low-intensity deviant behavior with ambiguous intent to harm the target. Uncivil behaviors are characteristically rude and discourteous, displaying a lack of regard for others. The authors hypothesize there is an "incivility spiral" in the workplace made worse by "asymmetric global interaction".

Bullying is abusive social interaction between peers can include aggression, harassment, and violence. Bullying is typically repetitive and enacted by those who are in a position of power over the victim. A growing body of research illustrates a significant relationship between bullying and emotional intelligence.

Hurtful communication occurs when the receiver perceives a specific social interaction as upsetting or harmful emotionally. In the course of human interaction, one party will say or do something that results in unpleasant emotional feelings for another. Negative social interactions can be intentional, when one or both parties are involved in interpersonal conflict, or unintentional, such as when misunderstandings occur. Actions such as failure to recognize accomplishments or significant dates can cause hurtful outcomes within relationships.

Dominic A. Infante was a communication scholar, professor, and author. In addition to shorter teaching terms at other universities, he served as a professor in The School of Communication Studies at Kent State University for 19 years. Widely known for his research on communication theory and verbal aggressiveness, he was revered as a prolific scholar in the field of communication studies and made a great impact on many of his students and colleagues.

References

  1. 1 2 Infante, D.A. (1986). "Verbal Aggressiveness: An Interpersonal Model and Measure". Communication Monographs. 53 (1): 61–69. doi:10.1080/03637758609376126.
  2. ↑ Infante, Dominic A.; Trebing, J.D.; Shepard, P.E.; Seeds, D.E. (1984). "The relationship between argumentativeness and verbal aggression". Southern Speech Communication Journal. 50 (1): 67–77. doi:10.1080/10417948409372622.
  3. ↑ Kim, Min-Sun (2002-07-23). Non-Western Perspectives on Human Communication: Implications for Theory and Practice. SAGE. ISBN   9780761923510.
  4. ↑ Infante, D.A.; Rancer, A.S. (1982). "A Conceptualization and Measure of Argumentativeness". Journal of Personality Assessment. 46 (1): 72–80. doi:10.1207/s15327752jpa4601_13. PMID   16370641.
  5. ↑ Croucher, S.M.; Demaris, A.; Turner, J.S.; Spencer, A.T. "Assessing the Factorial Complexity of the Verbal Aggressiveness Scale" (PDF). Human Communication. 15 (4): 261–277. S2CID   33387734. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2019-02-21.
  6. 1 2 Infante, D.A.; Trebing, J.D.; Shepard, P.E.; Seeds, D.E. (1984). "The relationship of argumentativeness to verbal aggression". Southern Speech Communication Journal. 50 (1): 67–77. doi:10.1080/10417948409372622.
  7. ↑ Shaw, Kotowski, Boster, Levine, A.Z., M.R., F.J., T.R. (2012). "The Effect of Prenatal Sex Hormones on the Development of Verbal Aggression". Journal of Communication. 62 (5): 778–793. doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.2012.01665.x.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  8. ↑ Infante, D.A., & Wrigley, C.J. (1986). "Verbal Aggressiveness: An Interpersonal Model and Measure". Communication Monographs, 53(1), 61-69. doi:10.1080/03637758609376126
  9. ↑ Huizen, Jennifer (December 18, 2019). "Verbal abuse: What to know". Medical and health information. Retrieved August 4, 2023.
  10. ↑ Infante, D.A., & Rancer, A.S. (1982). "A Conceptualization and Measure of Argumentativeness. Journal of Personality Assessment, 46, 72-80. doi:10.1207/s15327752jpa4601 13
  11. 1 2 Weger, H. (2006). "Associations Among Romantic Attachment, Argumentativeness, and Verbal Aggressiveness in Romantic Relationships". Argumentation and Advocacy, 43, 29-40. doi: 10.1080/00028533.2006.11821660
  12. 1 2 Infante, D.A., Sabourin, T.C., Rudd, J.E., & Shannon, E. A. (1990). "Verbal Aggression in Violent and Nonviolent Marital Disputes." Communication Quarterly, 38(4), 361-371. doi: 10.1080/01463379009369773
  13. ↑ Rill, L., Baiocchi, E., Hopper, M., Denker, K., & Olson, L.N. (2009). "Exploration of the Relationship between Self-Esteem, Commitment, and Verbal Aggressiveness in Romantic Dating Relationships". Communication Reports, 22(2),102-113. doi: 10.1080/08934210903061587
  14. ↑ Muris, P., Meesters, C., Morren, M., & Moorman, L. (2004). "Anger and Hostility in Adolescents: Relationships with Self-Report Attachment Style and Perceived Parental Rearing Styles". Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 57, 257-264. doi: 10.1016/S0022-3999(03)00616-0
  15. ↑ Riesch, S.K., Anderson, L.S., & Krueger, H.A. (2006). "Parent-Child Communication Processes: Preventing Children's Health-Risk Behaviors". Journal for Specialist in Pediatric Nursing, 11, 41-46. doi: 10.1111/j.1744-6155.2006.00042.x
  16. ↑ Knapp, M.L., Stafford, L., & Daly, J.A. (1986). "Regrettable Messages: Things People Wish They Haven't Said". Journal of Communication, 36,p. 40-58. doi: 10.1111/j.1460-2466.1986.tb01449.x
  17. ↑ McClure, L., Carlyle, K., & Roberto, A. (2005). "The Relationship Between Parents' Use of Verbal and Physical Aggression and Children's Relational Satisfaction in Closeness with Their Parents". Conference Papers -- International Communication Association, 1-29. doi: 10.1080/15267430802561659
  18. ↑ Ainsworth, M.D., & Bowldy, J. (1991). "Ethological Approach to Personality Development" American Psychologist, 46, 333-34. http://www.psychology.sunysb.edu/attachment/online/ainsworth_bowlby_1991.pdf
  19. ↑ Styron, T., & Janoff-Bulman, R. (1997). "Childhood Attachment and Abuse: Long-term Effects of Adult Attachment, Depression, and Conflict Resolution". Child Abuse and Neglect, 21, 1015-2023. doi: 10.1080/10926770903475968
  20. ↑ Bayer, C.L., & Cegala, D.J. (1992). "Trait Verbal Aggressiveness and Argumentativeness: Relations with Parenting Style". Western Journal of Communication, 56, 302-310. doi: 10.1080/10570319209374418
  21. 1 2 Bekiari, A.; Syrmpas, I. (2018). "Differences between leadership style and verbal aggressiveness profile of coaches and the satisfaction and goal orientation of young athletes" (PDF). Journal of Physical Education and Sport. 18 (2): 1008–1015. S2CID   33387734. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2019-02-21.
  22. ↑ Walker, D.D.; van Jaarsveld, D.D.; Skarlicki, D.P. (2017). "Sticks and Stones Can Break my Bones but Words Can Also Hurt Me: The Relationship Between Customer Verbal Aggression and Employee Incivility". Journal of Applied Psychology. 102 (2): 163–179. doi:10.1037/apl0000170. PMID   27893256. S2CID   24681013.
  23. ↑ Gabriel, A.S.; Diefendorff, J.M. (2015). "Emotional Labor Dynamics: A Momentary Approach". Academy of Management Journal. 58 (6): 1804–1825. doi:10.5465/amj.2013.1135.
  24. ↑ Diefendorff, J.M.; Gosserand, R.H. (2003). "Understanding the emotional labor process: A control theory perspective". Journal of Organizational Behavior. 24 (8): 945–959. doi:10.1002/job.230.
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