Warning label

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Warning label on a cigarette pack: "Smoking kills". Marlboro red Old pack.jpg
Warning label on a cigarette pack: "Smoking kills".
Warning label for a personal watercraft. Personal watercraft warning sticker.jpg
Warning label for a personal watercraft.

A warning label is a label attached to a product, or contained in a product's instruction manual, warning the user about risks associated with its use, and may include restrictions by the manufacturer or seller on certain uses. [1]

Contents

Some of them are legal requirements (such as health warnings on tobacco products). Most of them are placed to limit civil liability in lawsuits against the item's manufacturer or seller (see product liability). [2] [3] That sometimes results in labels which for some people seem to state the obvious.

Lack of a warning label can become an informational defect, which is a type of product defect. [4]

Warning labels are found on various product packagings, such as chemicals (flammable, pesticide, poisons, etc.), batteries, tobacco, alcohol and other unhealthy foods.

Effectiveness

Warning label for toxic chemicals. GHS-pictogram-skull.svg
Warning label for toxic chemicals.

Warning systems promote attention, comprehension, and protective behavior [5] . Research confirms that well-designed warnings based on scientific principles improve safety behavior, with effective warnings leading to greater compliance than their absence [6] [7] . However, not all research finds a direct correlation between warning design and safety outcomes due to methodological differences (e.g., user population, context of use). Some studies suggest that prior benign experiences or high compliance costs may reduce warning effectiveness, emphasizing the need for more forceful design strategies.  Comprehensive reviews of the literature indicate that the most reliable indicators of warning effectiveness are comprehension and behavioral compliance.

Meta-analytic reviews [8] [9] concluded that warnings increase safe behavior, stressing the need for testing with representative user groups. They found that the most effective strategy for boosting compliance is presenting uncluttered, task-integrated warnings in highly salient locations.

Regulation by country

Chile

European Economic Area

In the European Economic Area, a product containing hazardous mixtures must have a unique formula identifier (UFI) code. This is not a warning label per se, but a code that helps poison control centres identify the exact formula of a hazardous product.

Mexico

United States

The American National Standard Institute (ANSI) develops a wide range of industry voluntary standards. The ANSI Z535 Committee develops a set of standards for the design, application, and use of signs, colors and symbols intended to identify and warn against specific hazards and for other accident prevention purposes. The ANSI standards were developed to standardize warning systems content and format.  They are informed by scientific input to maximize message recognition and comprehension with the aim of improving warning system effectiveness.  The two standards most relevant to consumer product hazard signs are ANSI Z535.4: Product Safety Signs and Labels [10] and ANSI Z535.6: Product Safety Information in Product Manuals, Instructions, and Other Collateral Materials. Studies indicate that warnings that were consistent with the ANSI Z535 standard were rated as being more noticed, read, and understood and they promoted greater compliance in comparison with warnings that were inconsistent with the standard [11] .

In the United States, warning labels have been mandated under a number of different government organizations. For instance, the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act of 1938. [12] [13] Cigarettes were not required to have warning labels in the United States until Congress passed the Federal Cigarette Labeling and Advertising Act (FCLAA) in 1965. [14]

Other organizations that create label standards in the US — the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) and American National Standards Institute (ANSI) — govern their use. The US organizations pull from international organizations such as the Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals and the International Standards Organization.

Chemical hazard level warning labels

In the United States [15] or elsewhere, the terms Danger, Warning and Caution are regulated by the Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS) ANSI Z535. Graphic symbols are regulated by ISO 7010.

TermHazardMeaningUsage
Danger!Highest levelIndicates severe injury or death certain to occur if not avoided.Reserved for the most severe situations, often accompanied by symbols or pictograms that are universally recognized to quickly convey the risks involved even if the language is not recognized by the viewer.
Warning!Medium levelThere is a potential hazard that could result in serious injury or death but is less immediate or severe or probable than those marked with "Danger."Signals a need for caution and awareness of the potential risks, and, like "Danger," is often paired with symbols to facilitate quick recognition.
Caution!Lowest levelThere is a potential hazard that could result in minor or moderate injury, or there is a risk of property damage.Used in situations where the risks do not typically result in serious injury or death but where attention and care are still required. It advises individuals to proceed with caution to prevent accidents.

See also

References

  1. ↑ Wogalter, Michael S. (2006). "Introduction". In Wogalter, Michael S. (ed.). Handbook of warnings (PDF). Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. ISBN   978-0-8058-4724-6.
  2. ↑ Egilman, D. & Bohme, S. R. (2006). "Purposes and Scope of Warnings". In Wogalter, Michael S. (ed.). Handbook of warnings (PDF). Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. ISBN   978-0-8058-4724-6.
  3. ↑ Khoury, Clarke E. (1989). "Warning Labels May Be Hazardous to Your Health: Common-Law and Statutory Responses to Alcoholic Beverage Manufacturers' Duty to Warn". Cornell Law Review. 75: 158–188.
  4. ↑ "What Are Different Types of Product Defects and How Do they Affect Your Claim?" . Retrieved 16 November 2024.
  5. ↑ Laughery, Kenneth R.; Wogalter, Michael S. (April 2006). "Designing Effective Warnings". Reviews of Human Factors and Ergonomics. 2 (1): 241–271. doi:10.1177/1557234x0600200109. ISSN   1557-234X.
  6. ↑ Wogalter, Michael S.; Kalsher, Michael J.; Racicot, Bernadette M. (August 1993). "Behavioral compliance with warnings: effects of voice, context, and location". Safety Science. 16 (5–6): 637–654. doi:10.1016/0925-7535(93)90028-c. ISSN   0925-7535.
  7. ↑ Brelsford, John W.; Wogalter, Michael S.; Scoggins, James A. (October 1994). "Enhancing Comprehension and Retention of Safety-Related Pictorials". Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting. 38 (14): 836–840. doi:10.1177/154193129403801408. ISSN   1071-1813.
  8. ↑ Cox, Eli P.; Wogalter, Michael S.; Stokes, Sara L.; Murff, Elizabeth J. Tipton (July 1997). "Do Product Warnings Increase Safe Behavior? A Meta-Analysis". Journal of Public Policy & Marketing. 16 (2): 195–204. doi:10.1177/074391569701600201. ISSN   0743-9156.
  9. ↑ Hancock, P.A.; Kaplan, A.D.; MacArthur, K.R.; Szalma, J.L. (October 2020). "How effective are warnings? A meta-analysis". Safety Science. 130: 104876. doi:10.1016/j.ssci.2020.104876. ISSN   0925-7535.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: article number as page number (link)
  10. ↑ "An Overview of the ANSI Z535 Standards for Safety Signs, Labels, and Tags", Handbook of Warnings, CRC Press, pp. 467–474, 2006-01-20, ISBN   978-0-429-17609-8 , retrieved 2026-01-13
  11. ↑ Laughery, Kenneth R.; Paige, Danielle L.; Laughery, Brenda R.; Wogalter, Michael S.; Kalsher, Michael J.; Leonard, S. David (September 2002). "Guidelines for Warnings Design: Do They Matter?". Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting. 46 (19): 1708–1712. doi:10.1177/154193120204601904. ISSN   1071-1813.
  12. ↑ Federal Food, Drug, & Cosmetic Act, Pub. L. No. 75-717, 52 Stat. 1040 (1938) (codified as amended at 21 U.S.C. §§ 301-99 (2006))
  13. ↑ Carlson, Peter (6 November 2006). "Hey, the labels are kind of stupid, but don't say they didn't try to warn you". The Seattle Times. Retrieved February 23, 2008.
  14. ↑ Federal Cigarette Labeling and Advertising Act, Pub. L. No. 89-92, 79 Stat. 282 (1965) (codified as amended at 15 U.S.C. §§ 1331-40 (1970)).
  15. ↑ Rys, John Van; Meyer, Verne; Sebranek, Patrick (2006). The Business Writer. Houghton Mifflin Company. p. 567. ISBN   978-0-618-37087-0.
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